Metabolic and Endocrine Insights in Donkeys
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Metabolic Diseases
2.1. Hyperlipemia
2.1.1. Introduction
Hyperlipemia keynotes
|
2.1.2. Etiology
2.1.3. Epidemiology
2.1.4. Pathophysiology
2.1.5. Clinical Signs
2.1.6. Diagnosis
2.1.7. Treatment
2.1.8. Prognosis
3. Endocrine Diseases
3.1. Pituitary Pars Intermedia Dysfunction (PPID)
3.1.1. Introduction
PPID keynotes
|
3.1.2. Epidemiology
3.1.3. Pathophysiology
3.1.4. Clinical Signs
3.1.5. Diagnosis
Ref | Technique | Analyzer | ACTH (pg/mL) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
December–June | July–November | August | September–October | |||||
Donkeys | [25] | ND | ND | 66.7 ± 20.7 [May–June] | ND | ND | ND | |
[32] | CLIA | ND | 17.8 (16.5–19.5) [November–June] | 37.9 (28.9–36.9) [July–October] | ||||
[33] | IFIA | Tosoh AIA 360 | 2.7–30.4 [November–June] | 9.0–49.1 [July–October] | ||||
[26] | CLIA | Immulite 2000 xpi | 5–55.4 | 19.5–143 | ||||
[28] | CLIA | Immulite 2000 | 17.3 (5–80.5) | 40.9 (12.4–214) | 88.1 (46–259) | 97 (35.7–319) | ||
[22] * | CLIA | Immulite 1000 | 35 (22–66) a | 63 (40–149.5) a | 105 (68–187) a | 136 (77–>200) a | ||
[31] # | CLIA | Immulite 1000 | ND | ND | 79.2 [65.8] | ND | ||
Horses | [27] | CLIA | Immulite 2000 xpi | PPID likely | <15 | <15 | <20 | <30 |
Equivocal | 15–40 | 15–50 | 20–75 | 30–90 | ||||
PPID unlikely | >40 | >50 | >75 | >90 |
3.1.6. Treatment
3.1.7. Prognosis
3.2. Donkey/Asinine Metabolic Syndrome (DMS/AMS)
3.2.1. Introduction
DMS keynotes
|
3.2.2. Epidemiology
3.2.3. Pathophysiology
3.2.4. Clinical Signs
3.2.5. Diagnosis
- -
- Insulin dysregulation
Ref | Technique | Analyzer (Manufacturer) | BCS | Insulin (µIU/mL) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Donkeys | [25] | ND | ND | ND | 1.3 (0–6.6) | |
[50,51] | ND | ND | ND | 4.9 ± 0.5 | ||
[51] | ND | ND | <3.5/5 * | 7.3 | ||
>3.5/5 * | 20.9 | |||||
[5] | IRMA | KIP1251 (DIASource ImmunoAssays, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium) | 4–9 | 9.1 (7.4–14.7) | ||
4–6 | 9.9 ± 0.8 | |||||
>7 | 10.3 ± 0.6 | |||||
[33] | IFIA | AIA 360 (Tosoh) | ND | 0–15.1 | ||
[43] | RIA | Coat-a-Count (Siemens) | 2–3.5 | 2.7 ± 4.6 | ||
4–6 | 6 ± 4.6 | |||||
6.5–9 | 22.3 ± 4.6 | |||||
[26] | CLIA | ADVIA Centaur XPT (Siemens) | ND | 0.7–14.4 | ||
Horses | [47] | CLIA | Immulite 2000 xpi (Siemens) | ND | Non-diagnostic | <30 |
ID suspect | 30–75 | |||||
ID | >75 | |||||
RIA/CLIA | ND/Immulite 1000 (Siemens) | ND | Non-diagnostic | <20 | ||
ID suspect | 20–50 | |||||
ID | >50 |
Test | OST | OGT | IVGTT | CGIT |
---|---|---|---|---|
Protocol | Provide one flake of hay overnight or 6 h prior to sampling. Collect baseline blood sample for resting glucose and insulin determination. a,b | |||
Administer 0.45 mL/kg/PO of Karo Light corn syrup | Administer dextrose 1 g/kg (20% solution) through a nasogastric tube | Administer a bolus of 50% dextrose (300 mg/kg/IV) | Administer a bolus of 50% dextrose (150 mg/kg, IV) followed by regular insulin b (0.1 IU/kg/IV) | |
Second blood sample at 60–75 minutes c | Second blood sample at 120–150 minutes c | Second blood sample at 150–180 min | Second blood sample at 60–75 min | |
Interpretation | ID if insulin is higher than 50 µIU/mL d | ID if insulin is higher than 80 µIU/mL d | ID if blood glucose is above baseline d | ID if blood glucose is above baseline d |
Observations | a Check with the reference laboratory whether plasma or serum is preferred for insulin measurement. Oxalate fluoride tubes are recommended if glucose will be measured later or if the sample will be frozen. Fresh blood can be used for hand-held glucometers. b Crystalline rapid action insulin. c Precise blood collection time has not been validated for ID diagnosis in donkeys. d Insulin cut-off value has not been validated for ID diagnosis in donkeys. |
- -
- Obesity
- -
- Laminitis
3.2.6. Treatment
- -
- Obesity
- -
- Insulin dysregulation
- -
- Laminitis
3.2.7. Prognosis
3.3. Other Endocrine Disturbances
3.3.1. Thyroid Gland Diseases
3.3.2. Calcium–Phosphorus Homeostasis Disorders
4. Conclusions, Further Recommendations and Forthcoming Research
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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|
Test | TRH Stimulation Test | DST * |
---|---|---|
Protocol | Fasting has no influence. Collect at any time of the day. Avoid sampling acutely laminitic, stressed or ill animals, or after exercise or sedation with α2-agonists. Collect baseline blood sample for resting ACTH a (TRH) or cortisol b (DST) determination. | |
Administer protirelin (synthetic TRH) or chemical-grade TRH: 0.5–1 mg/IV. | Administer dexamethasone: 40 µg/kg/IM. | |
Second blood sample at 10 min. | Second blood sample at 15–19 h. | |
Interpretation | PPID if ACTH is higher than 110 pg/mL. | PPID if cortisol is higher than 1 µg/mL. |
Observations | a EDTA tubes are preferable for ACTH; however; check with the laboratory for collection instructions. Rapidly centrifuge and freeze plasma. Ship under refrigeration. b Check with the reference laboratory whether plasma or serum is preferred for measurement. |
Drugs | Dose | Route | Interval | Observations |
---|---|---|---|---|
Heparins | ||||
Dalteparin | 50–100 IU/kg | SC | 24 h | Increases LPL activity |
Enoxaparin | 40–80 IU/kg | SC | 24 h | Increases LPL activity |
Heparin sulfate | 70 IU/kg | IV-SC | 12–24 h | Aggregates erythrocytes and increases LPL activity |
Insulins | ||||
Regular insulin | 0.05–01 IU/kg | IV-IM | 6 h or CRI | Increases LPL activity and inhibits HSL |
Protamine zinc insulin | 20–60 IU | IM | 24 h | Increases LPL activity and inhibits HSL |
Synthetic thyroxine (tT4) | ||||
Sodium levothyroxine | 0.05–0.1 mg/kg | PO | 24 h | Improves insulin sensitivity |
Dopamine receptor agonist type 2 | ||||
Pergolide | 0.002–0.01 mg/kg | PO | 24 h | Anorexia, lethargy and oral ulcers |
Anti-H1 receptor, anticholinergic (M) and antiserotonergic (5-HT) | ||||
Cyproheptadine | 0.2–0.6 mg/kg | PO | 12–24 h | An appetite stimulant |
Biguanides | ||||
Metformin | 15–50 mg/kg | PO | 8–12 h | Anorexia; does not induce hypoglycemia |
Sodium–glucose transporter inhibitor type 2 (SGLT-2) | ||||
Canagliflozin | 0.3–0.6 mg/kg | PO | 24 h | Increases blood triglycerides |
Ertugliflozin | 0.03–0.05 mg/kg | PO | 24 h | Increases blood triglycerides |
Velagliflozin | 0.3 mg/kg | PO | 24 h | Increases blood triglycerides |
Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor (DPP-4) | ||||
Sitagliptin | 1.5 mg/kg | PO | 24 h |
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Mendoza, F.J.; Toribio, R.E.; Perez-Ecija, A. Metabolic and Endocrine Insights in Donkeys. Animals 2024, 14, 590. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14040590
Mendoza FJ, Toribio RE, Perez-Ecija A. Metabolic and Endocrine Insights in Donkeys. Animals. 2024; 14(4):590. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14040590
Chicago/Turabian StyleMendoza, Francisco J., Ramiro E. Toribio, and Alejandro Perez-Ecija. 2024. "Metabolic and Endocrine Insights in Donkeys" Animals 14, no. 4: 590. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14040590