Poor Association between Facial Expression and Mild Lameness in Thoroughbred Trot-Up Examinations
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Lameness Examination
2.2. Image Processing
2.3. Pain Assessment
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Pain Scores for Each Facial Expression Parameter Derived from the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS) and Ethogram Using Facial Expression in Ridden Horses (FEReq)
Descriptor | Definition | Pain Score | |
---|---|---|---|
Head position | Twisted—nose to left or right | Head tipped to one side of the vertical axis | 1 |
Ears | Ears forwards | Both ears forward with pinnae facing forwards | 0 |
Ears erect and parallel | Both ears vertical with pinnae facing forwards | 0 | |
Both ears erect & to side | Both ears erect and pinnae point to side (divergent), i.e., 180° different directions to the side | 2 | |
One ear forward & one to side | Both ears erect one to the front, and one to the side with pinna pointing to side, 90° different directions | 1 | |
One ear to side & one back | One ear to the side (divergent) and one pinned back—90° different directions | 2 | |
One ear forward & one back | One ear erect and facing forwards and one pinned backwards | 1 | |
Both ears back | Both ears erect pinned back towards the neck | 3 | |
Eyes | Orbital tightening not present | Eye lids are well apart, not closed | 0 |
Orbital tightening moderately present | Eye lids are partially closed | 1 | |
Orbital tightening obviously present | Eye lids are almost completely closed | 3 | |
Eye white showing | Sclera exposed | 3 | |
Eye round shape, relaxed | Round-shaped eye | 0 | |
Eye almond shape | Almond/diamond-shaped eye | 1 | |
Tension above the eye | Tension of m. levator anguli oculi medialis | 2 | |
Tension caudal to the eye | Contraction of muscles making zygomatic archmore easily visible | 2 | |
Intense stare | Glazed look | 2 | |
Nostrils | Relaxed, neutral | Nostril cartilage in neutral position, tear-drop shape | 0 |
Open wide | Nostril cartilage lifted—mediolateral widening, circular in shape | 0 | |
Tense | Lateral rim of nostril pulled back or down towards the lips, angled sides | 1 | |
Wrinkle between nostrils | Wrinkle between nostrils | 1 | |
Wrinkle between nostril and lip | Wrinkle folds ventral to nostril towards lip | 1 | |
Mouth | Relaxed and neutral | Lips closed | 0 |
Lips slightly separated | Lips separated, cannot see teeth | 1 | |
Lips separated some teeth visible | Lips separated can see some teeth, but no gum, and teeth are not apart | 1 | |
Lips separated some teeth visible | Lips separated can see some teeth, but no gum, and teeth are apart | 1 | |
Lips separated and teeth visible but apposed | Lips open showing teeth and gum and teeth which are apposed | 2 | |
Mouth open, teeth exposed and separated, but no tongue | Mouth open, i.e., teeth slightly separated, but cannot see tongue | 2 | |
Mouth open, teeth exposed and widely separated, but tongue not visible | Mouth open, i.e., teeth widely separated, but cannot see tongue | 2 | |
Mouth open, teeth exposed and separated and tongue visible | Mouth open, i.e., teeth widely separated, exposing tongue | 3 | |
Mouth open, teeth exposed and separated and tongue visible | Mouth open, i.e., teeth slightly separated, exposing tongue | 2 | |
Upper lip | Relaxed | Muzzle relaxed with curved contour in line with lower lip | 0 |
Muzzle tense | Muzzle tense and angled | 1 | |
Muzzle tense and upper muzzle extended | Muzzle tense and angled and upper muzzle extended | 2 | |
Lower lip | Relaxed | Muzzle relaxed with curved contour | 0 |
Muzzle tense | Muzzle tense and angled | 1 | |
Tongue | Tongue in | Tongue not seen | 0 |
Tongue seen inside oral cavity | Tongue seen inside oral cavity | 1 | |
Tip of tongue protruding, no teeth | Tip of tongue protruding, cannot see teeth | 1 | |
Tip of tongue protruding, teeth | Tip of tongue protruding, can see teeth | 2 | |
Large part of tongue out, but teeth not exposed | Large part of tongue out, but teeth not exposed | 2 | |
Large part of tongue out and teeth exposed | Large part of tongue out and teeth exposed | 3 |
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Fit to Race | Lame | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|
n | 22 | 16 | |
Age | 3.4 (1.0) | 4.1 (1.8) | 0.282 |
Race starts | 4.3 (6.2) | 2.3 (3.3) | 0.203 |
Prizemoney | $111,553 (135,827) | $170,375 (414,096) | 0.233 |
Sex | 0.606 | ||
Female | 8 | 5 | |
Gelding | 6 | 7 | |
Entire | 8 | 4 | |
AAEP † threshold | 21 | 17 | 0.976 |
AAEP † score | |||
0 | 3 | 1 | 0.566 |
1 | 11 | 6 | |
2 | 8 | 9 |
Behaviour Parameter | Agreement % † | Observations Not Scored ‡ | Interobserver Reliability | Intraobserver Reliability | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Observer 1 | Observer 2 | |||||
Stiffly ears | 61.8 | 0 | 19 | 0.57 (0.41, 0.68) | 0.83 (0.79, 0.87) | |
Orbital tightening | 83.6 | 0 | 101 | 0.76 (0.73, 0.80) | 0.80 (0.76, 0.83) | |
Tension above the eye | 54.6 | 8 | 111 | 0.48 (0.44, 0.55) | 0.60 (0.53, 0.64) | |
HGS | Prominent chewing muscles | 71.6 | 2 | 420 | 0.45 (0.47, 0.59) | 0.55 (0.22, 0.44) |
Strained nostrils | 50.9 | 5 | 138 | 0.15 (0.03, 0.28) | 0.63 (0.34, 0.86) | |
Mouth strained | 62.7 | 18 | 166 | 0.60 (0.56, 0.66) | 0.63 (0.54, 0.66) | |
Overall pain | 46.2 | 0 | 20 | 0.25 (0.18, 0.33) | 0.45 (0.34, 0.56) | |
Ears (position) | 52.2 | 0 | 23 | 0.69 (0.64, 0.73) | 0.83 (0.80, 0.85) | |
Stare (normal or intense) | 64.5 | 8 | 141 | 0.28 (0.19, 0.37) | 0.47 (0.29, 0.59) | |
Eye tension | 83.6 | 0 | 109 | 0.76 (0.73, 0.80) | 0.80 (0.75, 0.82) | |
Sclera (exposed or not exposed) | 97.4 | 1 | 14 | 0.72 (0.68, 0.76) | 0.78 (0.74, 0.81) | |
Eye shape (almond or round) | 57.4 | 0 | 119 | 0.23 (0.09, 0.37) | 0.68 (0.48, 0.84) | |
Tension caudal to eye | 76.8 | 7 | 93 | 0.54 (0.49, 0.60) | 0.66 (0.60, 0.69) | |
Tension above eye | 70.2 | 10 | 120 | 0.39 (0.32, 0.50) | 0.70 (0.62, 0.75) | |
FEReq | Nostril tension | 57.0 | 5 | 148 | 0.16 (0.06, 0.29) | 0.56 (0.26, 0.79) |
Wrinkle between nostrils | 67.0 | 163 | 409 | 0.14 (0.12, 0.35) | 0.73 (0.37, 0.80) | |
Wrinkles ventral to nostrils | 84.4 | 9 | 91 | 0.34 (0.28, 0.43) | 0.59 (0.50, 0.64) | |
Upper lip | 64.7 | 6 | 128 | 0.38 (0.33, 0.47) | 0.49 (0.41, 0.53) | |
Lower lip | 77.1 | 23 | 203 | 0.54 (0.47, 0.61) | 0.62 (0.50, 0.64) | |
Nose twisted | 95.0 | 3 | 17 | 0.15 (0.07, 0.24) | 0.64 (0.59, 0.68) | |
Mouth | 78.5 | 2 | 124 | 0.67 (0.58, 0.74) | 0.83 (0.79, 0.85) | |
Tongue | 92.2 | 0 | 71 | 0.75 (0.71, 0.79) | 0.84 (0.81, 0.86) | |
Total not scored | 270 | 2785 |
HGS Parameter | ‘Fit to Race’ | Lame | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Not present | 324 | 200 | 1.00 | |||
Stiffly backward ears | Moderately present | 410 | 362 | 1.43 | 0.89, 2.29 | 0.136 |
Obviously present | 122 | 63 | 0.84 | 0.23, 3.00 | 0.784 | |
Not present | 596 | 417 | 1.00 | |||
Orbital tightening | Moderately present | 159 | 130 | 1.16 | 0.56, 2.45 | 0.680 |
Obviously present | 44 | 53 | 1.72 | 0.68, 4.34 | 0.250 | |
Not present | 240 | 243 | 1.00 | |||
Tension above the eye | Moderately present | 402 | 280 | 0.69 | 0.36, 1.33 | 0.264 |
Obviously present | 149 | 67 | 0.44 | 0.16, 1.27 | 0.130 | |
Not present | 344 | 294 | 1.00 | |||
Prominent chewing muscles † | Moderately present | 243 | 141 | 0.68 | 0.35, 1.30 | 0.242 |
Obviously present | 39 | 17 | 0.51 | 0.18, 1.41 | 0.195 | |
Not present | 266 | 239 | 1.00 | |||
Strained nostrils ‡ | Moderately present | 419 | 300 | 0.80 | 0.47, 1.35 | 0.399 |
Obviously present | 82 | 51 | 0.69 | 0.29, 1.65 | 0.405 | |
Not present | 270 | 552 | 1.00 | |||
Mouth strained † | Moderately present | 339 | 180 | 0.51 | 0.27, 0.97 | 0.042 |
Obviously present | 156 | 89 | 0.55 | 0.17, 1.74 | 0.307 | |
No pain | 405 | 348 | 1.00 | |||
Mild pain | 295 | 177 | 0.70 | 0.47, 1.04 | 0.078 | |
Overall pain § | Moderate pain | 109 | 83 | 0.89 | 0.46, 1.72 | 0.720 |
Severe pain | 38 | 25 | 0.77 | 0.29, 2.04 | 0.594 |
FEReq Parameter | ‘Fit to Race’ | Lame | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ears forward | 257 | 151 | 1.00 | |||
Erect to side | 257 | 226 | 1.50 | 0.74, 3.02 | 0.260 | |
Ear position | One ear forward and one ear back | 68 | 46 | 1.15 | 0.62, 2.13 | 0.653 |
One ear forward and one erect to side | 65 | 63 | 1.60 | 0.88, 2.90 | 0.121 | |
One to side and one to back | 84 | 70 | 1.39 | 0.59, 3.24 | 0.453 | |
Both ears back | 117 | 66 | 0.94 | 0.25, 3.54 | 0.923 | |
Stare § | Normal | 493 | 366 | 1.00 | ||
Stare | 285 | 207 | 0.98 | 0.60, 1.59 | 0.930 | |
Not present | 593 | 419 | 1.00 | |||
Eye tension | Moderately present | 156 | 130 | 1.18 | 0.56, 2.47 | 0.661 |
Obviously present | 42 | 51 | 1.72 | 0.68, 4.35 | 0.253 | |
Sclera | Not exposed | 826 | 582 | 1.00 | ||
Exposed | 23 | 54 | 3.33 | 1.03, 10.79 | 0.045 | |
Eye shape ‡ | Round | 443 | 272 | 1.00 | ||
Almond | 345 | 320 | 1.51 | 0.88, 2.60 | 0.137 | |
Tension caudal to eye | Not present | 297 | 295 | 1.00 | ||
Present | 501 | 307 | 0.62 | 0.28, 1.37 | 0.236 | |
Tension above eye § | Not present | 345 | 317 | 1.00 | ||
Present | 435 | 273 | 0.68 | 0.35, 1.33 | 0.264 | |
Relaxed | 248 | 229 | 1.00 | |||
Nostril tension ‡ | Open wide | 410 | 294 | 0.78 | 0.45, 1.34 | 0.364 |
Tense | 103 | 61 | 0.64 | 0.29, 1.43 | 0.277 | |
Wrinkles between nostrils ‡ | Not present | 401 | 316 | 1.00 | ||
Present | 135 | 76 | 0.71 | 0.36, 1.41 | 0.330 | |
Wrinkles ventral to nostrils § | Not present | 664 | 534 | 1.00 | ||
Present | 139 | 63 | 0.56 | 0.27, 1.19 | 0.133 | |
Relaxed | 424 | 395 | 1.00 | |||
Upper lip § | Tense | 251 | 137 | 0.59 | 0.30, 1.16 | 0.126 |
Tense and extended | 112 | 42 | 0.40 | 0.18, 0.90 | 0.027 | |
Lower lip † | Relaxed | 309 | 300 | 1.00 | ||
Tense | 428 | 235 | 0.57 | 0.26, 1.23 | 0.151 | |
Nose twisted § | Not present | 819 | 614 | 1.00 | ||
Present | 28 | 19 | 0.91 | 030, 2.75 | 0.861 | |
Closed | 567 | 436 | 1.00 | |||
Lips slightly separated: no teeth | 113 | 72 | 0.83 | 0.34, 2.03 | 0.680 | |
Lips separated, teeth: no gum | 35 | 15 | 0.56 | 0.11, 2.93 | 0.490 | |
Lips separated, teeth and gum exposed | 8 | 4 | 0.65 | 0.08, 5.32 | 0.688 | |
Mouth | Teeth slightly separated: tongue not visible | 9 | 12 | 1.41 | 0.35, 8.49 | 0.497 |
Teeth slightly separated: tongue visible | 41 | 16 | 0.31 | 0.15, 1.67 | 0.265 | |
Mouth widely separated but cannot see tongue | 5 | 4 | 1.15 | 0.12, 9.10 | 0.971 | |
Teeth widely separated: tongue visible | 16 | 9 | 0.73 | 0.11, 4.87 | 0.747 | |
Tongue in, not seen | 735 | 553 | 1.00 | |||
Tongue seen inside oral cavity | 74 | 32 | 0.57 | 0.21, 1.55 | 0.274 | |
Tip of tongue protruding, no teeth | 13 | 11 | 1.12 | 0.12, 10.80 | 0.919 | |
Tongue | Tip of tongue protruding, can see teeth | 4 | 6 | 1.99 | 0.18, 22.52 | 0.577 |
Large part of tongue out, but teeth not exposed | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | |
Large part of tongue out and teeth exposed | 0 | 1 | - | - | - |
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Anderson, K.A.; Morrice-West, A.V.; Wong, A.S.M.; Walmsley, E.A.; Fisher, A.D.; Whitton, R.C.; Hitchens, P.L. Poor Association between Facial Expression and Mild Lameness in Thoroughbred Trot-Up Examinations. Animals 2023, 13, 1727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13111727
Anderson KA, Morrice-West AV, Wong ASM, Walmsley EA, Fisher AD, Whitton RC, Hitchens PL. Poor Association between Facial Expression and Mild Lameness in Thoroughbred Trot-Up Examinations. Animals. 2023; 13(11):1727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13111727
Chicago/Turabian StyleAnderson, Katrina A., Ashleigh V. Morrice-West, Adelene S. M. Wong, Elizabeth A. Walmsley, Andrew D. Fisher, R. Chris Whitton, and Peta L. Hitchens. 2023. "Poor Association between Facial Expression and Mild Lameness in Thoroughbred Trot-Up Examinations" Animals 13, no. 11: 1727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13111727
APA StyleAnderson, K. A., Morrice-West, A. V., Wong, A. S. M., Walmsley, E. A., Fisher, A. D., Whitton, R. C., & Hitchens, P. L. (2023). Poor Association between Facial Expression and Mild Lameness in Thoroughbred Trot-Up Examinations. Animals, 13(11), 1727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13111727