Next Article in Journal
New Year Special Issue, Animals in 2023
Previous Article in Journal
Highly Effective Frontal Stunning Procedure Using a Pneumatic Penetrating Captive Bolt in Water Buffaloes
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Animals
Volume 13
Issue 1
10.3390/ani13010178
animals-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

A Trace Mineral Injection before Joining and Lambing Increases Marking Percentages and Lamb Weights on Diverse Farms in Victoria, Australia

by
Paula A. Gonzalez-Rivas
1,2,*,
Graham R. Lean
3,
Michael Chambers
4 and
Jerry Liu
1
1
Virbac Australia Pty Ltd., 361 Horsley Road, Milperra, NSW 2214, Australia
2
School of Agriculture and Food, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
3
Agrivet Business Consulting, P.O. Box 105, Hamilton, VIC 3300, Australia
4
Invetus Pty Ltd., Armidale, NSW 2350, Australia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Animals 2023, 13(1), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13010178
Submission received: 21 November 2022 / Revised: 16 December 2022 / Accepted: 22 December 2022 / Published: 3 January 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Small Ruminants)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:

Simple Summary

Optimum trace mineral (TM) status in ruminants is essential for fertility and the survival of the offspring by preventing oxidative stress and improving immunity. The benefits of injectable TM (ITM) supplementation in the lead-up to high-demand periods, such as pregnancy and calving, have been demonstrated in cattle. However, scientific evidence of its benefits for sheep fertility and health is scarce. The objective of this field study was to evaluate the effect of an ITM supplement containing Cu, Se, Zn and Mn pre-joining and pre-lambing to ewes on conception rates, ewe and lamb survival and farm profitability. This study demonstrated that supplementing ewes using ITM before joining and lambing can improve lamb survival, weight at weaning and farm profitability. These results help to understand TM supplementation for animal health, performance and farm profitability beyond the treatment of clinical deficiencies.

Abstract

This study was conducted on five commercial farms across Victoria, Australia, between September 2018 and November 2019, where the TM status of ewes was within normal ranges before joining. Mix breed ewes (n = 1484) were randomly allocated to receive either nil treatment (Control) or two injections of an ITM product containing zinc (40 mg/mL), manganese (10 mg/mL), selenium (3 mg/mL), and copper (10 mg/mL); 0.2 mL per 10 kg BW (Multimin® plus Copper for Sheep, Virbac (Australia) Pty Ltd., Milperra, NSW, Australia) 30 days before the start of joining and 30 days before the start of lambing. Approximately 90 days after joining, pregnancy status and conception rate were determined by ultrasound. The marking rate was determined approximately four weeks after the end of lambing, and lamb weights were determined at weaning (12 weeks after the end of lambing). In all farms, ITM treatment did not affect the conception rate. The average conception rate was 156 ± 11.0% (p > 0.05). The marking rate of ITM ewes was 9% higher than control ewes (95% Confidence Interval 3–21%). Lambs born to ITM ewes were 2.31 kg heavier at weaning than lambs born to control ewes (p < 0.001). Although not significant, ewe mortality across farms was 1.3% lower in the ITM group than in the control group. On average, ewes treated with ITM pre-joining and pre-lambing produced more and heavier lambs that represent an extra AU$ 2338 per 100 ewes net benefit for the producer. These results help to understand strategic TM supplementation for animal health, performance and farm profitability beyond the treatment of clinical deficiencies.

1. Introduction

Neonatal lamb mortality is a significant animal welfare issue. It represents essential production inefficiency to the sheep industry, while lamb survival directly represents the overall reproductive performance of the flock [1]. Most of lamb mortality occurs in the first 48 h after birth [2]. According to Meat & Livestock Australia (MLA) and other authors, in extensively grazed flocks around half of all losses are related to parturition, including stillbirth (21%), birth injury (18%), and dystocia (9%), followed by starvation-mismothering (25%), death in utero/prematurity (10%), predation (7%), and cold exposure (5%) [3,4,5,6]. In another study, MLA reported a mean cumulative ewe mortality of 2.0% in 2020 and 2.5% in 2019, being the most common causes of mortality septicaemia, primary dystocia and trauma [7]. Meat & Livestock Australia suggests that reducing lamb and ewe losses would significantly improve the profitability, animal welfare and social benefits of sheep enterprises.
Trace minerals (TM) copper (Cu), selenium (Se), zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn) are essential nutrients required for normal metabolic processes in livestock; they are components of metalloenzymes involved in intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and free radical detoxification and stabilisation of secondary molecules. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzymes are Mn, Cu and Zn dependent and are the first line of antioxidant defence, converting superoxide anion (O2−) to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Selenium mediates the activity of Se-containing antioxidant enzymes, including glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx), which regulates oxidative processes and cell membrane protection. These selenoenzymes catalyse the reduction of H2O2 and lipid peroxides to their corresponding alcohols and water with reduced glutathione (GSH) as the electron donor [8,9].
Optimum equilibrium between pro and antioxidant molecules before and during gestation is an essential requisite for fertility, placental development, and immune function to improve embryo survival and lambing outcomes by ensuring the survival of the newborn [8,10,11,12,13].
Sub-optimal or marginal levels of Cu, Se, Zn and, or Mn before joining and during pregnancy in breeding females are associated with delayed or depressed oestrus, early embryonic death, and retained placenta [14,15,16] inadequate transfer of TM to the foetus through the placenta, causing impaired foetal growth and metabolism, abnormalities in the development of the central nervous system and the skeleton, and impaired immunity and performance in early life [8,17,18].
Trace minerals are present in low concentrations in the body, and their requirements are not static through the production cycle. Increased demands for TM are associated with physiological and environmental stressors and reproductive and immune function [8]. These extra demands require increased TM intake and changes in homeostatic mechanism (increased absorption or reduced excretion) or the mobilisation of TM from maternal pools to the growing foetus in pregnant animals.
The standard practices of supplementing TM to ruminants include free-choice mineral mixes as loose or block forms or associated with energy and protein supplements. However, intake and utilisation of these supplements are highly variable and depend on animal requirements, voluntary feed intake, soil, forage and water quality and availability, palatability, accessibility, source and physical form of the mineral supplement, and presence of TM antagonists [19,20].
Other forms of TM supplementation include injectable formulations. While some only include one trace element, such as Se (barium selenate, sodium selenate), or Cu (copper glycinate); others provide a water-soluble combination of rapidly absorbed trace minerals containing EDTA-bound Cu, Zn and Mn, and sodium selenite. This injectable trace mineral formulation (ITM) allows livestock producers to deliver specific amounts of a combination of TM to individual animals targeting high-demand periods without antagonist interactions within the gastrointestinal tract [20,21,22,23,24].
The benefits of ITM supplementation in the lead-up to high-demand periods, such as pregnancy and calving, have been demonstrated in cattle [11,25,26,27,28] however, scientific evidence of its benefits for sheep fertility and health is scarce. We hypothesised that strategically timed ITM supplementation to ewes would increase conception rates, and lamb growth rates in addition to ewe and lamb survival and thus represent net economic benefits for producers and improved animal welfare outcomes.

2. Materials and Methods

This study was conducted with the approval of the Virbac Animal Ethics Committee (AEC 601/18) in accordance with the Australian Code for the Care and Use of Animals for Scientific Purposes [29].
The study was undertaken in five commercial farms (A, B, C, D, E) across Victoria, Australia, between September 2018 and November 2019.

Animals

Pasture-fed mixed-breed ewes (n = 1484; 300 ewes per farm approximately) were randomly allocated to receive either nil treatment (Control) or two injections of an ITM product containing zinc (as disodium zinc EDTA 40 mg/mL), manganese (as disodium manganese EDTA 10 mg/mL), selenium (as sodium selenite 3 mg/mL), and copper (as disodium copper EDTA 10 mg/mL) at a dose of 0.2 mL per 10 kg BW (Multimin® plus Copper for Sheep, Virbac (Australia) Pty Ltd., Milperra, NSW, Australia) 30 days before the start of joining and 30 days before the start of lambing.
Thirty days before the pre-joining treatment, ewes were randomly allocated to the treatment groups based on body weight and body condition score. Ewes were identified with coloured ear tags for each treatment.
In three randomly selected farms (A, C and D) blood samples (10 mL) were collected via jugular venipuncture from 10 randomly selected ewes from each treatment group to determine basal levels of glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx; an antioxidant enzyme correlated with Se levels in blood [8]) and copper. This allows to determine whether animals were considered deficient, marginal or adequate in trace minerals and to eliminate the risk of toxicity before the first injection of TM. Blood samples were analysed by a commercial laboratory (Regional Laboratory Services, Benalla, VIC, Australia).
Records of clinical TM deficiencies or toxicities were reviewed for all farms. All farms were not deficient in TM by the absence of clinical TM deficiencies such as white muscle disease, spontaneous fractures, enzootic neonatal ataxia (swayback), or discoloured wool in the last two years. In all farms, there were no risk factors for Cu toxicity, such as the presence of hepatotoxic plants or previous records of Cu toxicity cases.
Approximately 90 days after joining, pregnancy status (pregnant or empty) and conception rate (foetuses per 100 ewes) were determined by ultrasound. Ewes from each treatment group were managed in different paddocks of similar pastures with additional supplementary feed according to their pregnancy status (singles or multiples) as per standard practices for each farm. Lambing ewes were supervised twice a day, and weekly supervision was conducted all other times. The marking rate was determined approximately four weeks after the end of lambing, and lamb weights were determined at weaning (12 weeks after the end of lambing).
Due to data recording issues, data for lamb marking and lamb weaning weights were unavailable for farms E and D, respectively. Weaning weight data were compared using parametric ANOVA (both within and across all farms in Tibco SPOTFIRE S+ V 8.2, 2010. Fixed effects were treatment and farm, and random effects were paddock and sheep ID. Conception, marking, weaning rates, and ewe mortality were compared (within and across farms) using MedCalcs ‘Comparison of Two Rates’ calculator (2021 MedCalc Software Ltd.) which provided the calculated rate, a (Poisson) 95% Confidence Interval, a point estimate of the difference between the two rates and a 95% Confidence Interval around the point estimate. The p-value was obtained from a calculated Chi-squared test. Significance was defined as p < 0.05.
A partial budget was constructed to assess the net benefit of administering an ITM formulation pre-joining and pre-lambing on lamb survival and weaning weight based on the results of this study. Commodity data was sourced from MLA averaged for the two years up to April 2021. Store lamb prices were based on pricing quoted by AuctionsPlus https://auctionsplus.com.au for crossbred lambs in April 2021, which would apply to lambs at weaning or soon after. Full retail pricing for ITM was supplied by Virbac (Australia) Pty Ltd. Labour was based on current ruling rate for contract farm labour. Values are expressed in AUD.

3. Results

In farms A, C, and D, average glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx) and copper status in ewes were within normal ranges; however, some ewes presented marginal levels before joining (Table 1).
In all farms, ITM treatment did not affect the conception rate. The average conception rate was 156 ± 11.0% (p > 0.05). The marking rate of ITM ewes was 9% higher than control ewes (95% Confidence Interval 3–21%, 128% ITM vs. 119% control ewes). Lambs born to ITM ewes were heavier at weaning than lambs born to control ewes (2.31 kg; p < 0.001). Overall, there was between 0.75 and 4.27 kg benefit to weaning weight with ITM (Table 2). Although not significant, ewe mortality across farms was lower in the ITM group (1.17%) than in the control group (2.49%; p > 0.05).
Economic analysis was conducted based on the average data (Table 2). For 100 ewes treated, producing 9 extra lambs at marking, each lamb having 2.3 kg additional at weaning (assuming a 46% dressed percentage and AU$ 8.00 CWT) and reducing the cost associated to labour and ITM treatment, the net benefits of including ITM pre-joining and pre-lambing can be reflected in AU$ 2338 ($23/ewe) for the producer (Table 3).

4. Discussion

The field trial results demonstrated that supplementing TM in ewes with a commercial ITM formulation containing Cu, Se, Zn and Mn before joining and lambing can improve lamb survival, weight, and farm profitability. Although not significant, differences in ewe survival between treatments were also observed, potentially adding AU$ 455 extra per 100 treated ewes profit (based on 1.3% survival and AU$ 350/head) and significantly improving welfare outcomes.
These benefits can be a consequence of the role of TM on immunity and health by reducing oxidative stress and enhancing innate and acquired immunity in ewes and lambs [8,9,10]. Differences in management, animal husbandry and general nutrition cannot be negated and might explain differences among farms. Importantly, benefits were observed in farms without clinical TM deficiencies. Therefore, these results help to understand TM supplementation for animal health and performance beyond treating deficiencies.

4.1. Trace Minerals and Fertility

Previous studies have demonstrated that pre-joining supplementation with a similar ITM formulation containing Cu, Se, Zn and Mn increased pregnancy rates following a fixed-time artificial insemination protocol in Bos taurus cows and heifers [30], and following embryo transfer in non-deficient Bos indicus × Bos taurus heifers [26]. Similarly, Vedovatto et al. [31,32] reported that a single ITM injection 30 d before AI tended to improve pregnancy rates in Nellore cows with BCS < 5.
Gabryszuk & Klewiec [33] gave non-Se deficient 2- and 3-year-old ewes injections of sodium selenate four weeks before mating (5 mg Se/ewe) and four weeks before lambing (5 mg Se/ewe), similar to the Se doses used in the current protocol and observed increased detection of oestrus (100 vs. 76%) and fertility (100 vs. 68%) in 3-year-old treated ewes compared with control animals, but no effect in younger ewes. Other authors have shown variable or no impact of ITM on pregnancy rates in ruminants [34,35,36]. In the current study, ITM treatment did not affect conception rates in ewes at scanning. The inconsistent results found in the literature can be explained by factors such as breed, animal class, general nutrition, reproductive management, environmental factors, body condition score, TM status at the time of ITM administration and experiment design. In the present study, TM status at the start of the study was not determined in all farms, however some farms were considered marginal-deficient, and pasture analysis was not conducted. More detailed feed analysis is recommended in future experiments.

4.2. Trace Minerals during Pregnancy and Their Effects on Early Post-Natal Life

The current study demonstrated that ITM pre-joining and pre-lambing in ewes can improve lamb survival and weight. These benefits can be attributed to the role of TM on immunity and health by reducing oxidative stress and enhancing the lamb’s and ewe’s innate and acquired immunity.
During pregnancy, all tissues, including the placenta and foetus, require large amounts of oxygen due to increased energy demands for growth and development. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced by both the mother and foetus, as part of the normal metabolism. The adequate concentration of ROS is essential for embryo development, implantation, growth and maturation of cells and organs, defence against uterine infections, steroidogenesis, maintenance of pregnancy and the initiation of partum. However, excessive ROS production beyond physiological antioxidant defences may lead to oxidative stress (OS) with harmful effects on both the mother and foetus. Due to OS, alteration in cell structure and function results in embryo resorption, placental degeneration with subsequent alteration in maternal-foetal nutrient and oxygen exchanges, delay in foetal growth, pregnancy interruption, stillbirths, and post-partum diseases [37,38,39,40]. Previous research has demonstrated that ewes experience OS during the peripartum period with an increase in serum ROS at birth and until 36 h post-lambing [13,41].
Newborn lambs are also prone to develop free radical-induced damage and OS due to the sharp variations in pO2 around parturition. Increased aerobic metabolism after birth will increase ROS resulting in OS if the antioxidant system cannot counteract their effects [42,43]. Furthermore, the impact of prolonged birth and intrapartum asphyxia due to a weak dam, foetal entanglement or malpresentation leads to decreased cellular oxygen and glucose availability, triggering an increase in anaerobic glycolysis and ischemia with a subsequent reperfusion injury which induces production of ROS and OS [44,45]. These phenomena are considered contributing factors to the pathogenesis of many newborn diseases in several mammalian species, such as long-term motor and neurodevelopmental disabilities, thyroid gland dysfunction, and respiratory, digestive, and cardiac syndromes [46,47,48,49].
Injectable trace mineral formulations similar to the one used in this study have been demonstrated to increase the activity of antioxidant enzymes (SOD and GSHPx) in cattle after treatment [31,32,50,51]. Although the antioxidant enzyme responses after treatment were not determined in this study, the authors suggest that the reduced ewe losses and higher marking rates observed in the current trial can be consequences of improvements in the antioxidant status and health of ewes and their lambs.
The implications of optimum maternal TM status and placental transfer on foetal and neonatal ruminant metabolism have been studied for several decades. During gestation, the ruminant foetus is dependent upon its dams for the transfer of TM via the placenta [8,18,52] and additional nutritional inputs are required to support pregnancy and lactation above the requirements for maintenance and growth. The situation is exacerbated if ewes have grazed rapidly growing lush pasture or young crops pre-lambing since the rapid pasture growth in spring may dilute the TM content in the pasture [53]. Several studies [52,54,55,56,57,58] have shown Se, Zn, Cu, and Mn levels in the ovine and bovine conceptus (embryo and associated extraembryonic membranes) and foetal liver are several folds greater than in the surrounding reproductive tissues and maternal liver as gestation advances.
Recent experiments conducted in ruminants have demonstrated that maternal supplementation of TM using oral or injectable formulations during pregnancy modifies metabolism [59], body composition [59,60], TM status [61,62,63], reproductive [57], immune function [57,62,64], and thermoregulation [65] of the progeny during the early post-natal life. Jacometo et al. [64] suggested maternal TM supplementation reduces systemic inflammation in calves after birth and allows additional energy (glucose) to be spared for growth. We, therefore, suggest that supplementing ewes with ITM pre-lambing could have elicited a better post-natal health status and development in lambs [e.g., by enhancing glucose metabolism, energy utilisation, and growth] and sparing glucose from maintenance functions in favour of tissue growth and improved innate immunity, resulting in heavier lambs at weaning.
Cartilage and bone development require Zn, Mn and Cu, as they are cofactors of enzymes that synthesise chondroitin-sulphate and others involved in the cross-linking of protein chains in elastin and collagen of cartilage [66,67]. Whether improved bone growth and density account for increasing body weight in lambs from ewes supplemented with ITM pre-joining and pre-lambing in this trial remains to be determined and ensures further investigation.
Maternal supplementation with organic Cu, Mn, and Zn during late gestation has been demonstrated to improve colostrum quality by increasing the concentration of immunoglobulins and reducing calf mortality, improving calf serum antioxidant capacity and immunoglobulin concentrations compared with calves from non-supplemented cows [68,69]. Direct effects of ITM on maternal TM status and indirect effects through passive maternal transfer (including colostrum TM and IgG) in the current trial should be considered but could not be accurately discerned and ensures further investigation. We hypothesise that ewes supplemented with ITM pre-lambing have improved trace mineral transfer via the placenta and better colostrum quality and absorption in lambs.
Van Niekerk et al. [70] gave ewes a single injection of Cu heptanoate (a long-acting Cu source; 12.5 mg Cu per ewe) at varying times after joining in three consecutive years. Although there was no effect on lamb birth or weaning weights, there was a trend towards improved lamb survival compared with untreated animals (+13%). The authors conclude that improved lamb survival after Cu supplementation constitutes a definite economic benefit under commercial farming conditions. This conclusion agrees with the results obtained in the present research.
Gabryszuk & Klewiec [33] gave non-Se deficient 2- and 3-year-old ewes injections of sodium selenate four weeks before mating (5 mg Se/ewe) and four weeks before lambing (5 mg Se/ewe). There was increased lamb body weight at day 28 (10.9 vs. 9.4 kg) and lamb ADG in the first 28 days (241.8 vs. 197.7 g) in 3-year-old ewes compared with non-treated ewes. Administration of Se also increased ADG in the first 28 days (220.1 g/day vs. 186.1 g/day) in lambs of 2-year-old ewes compared with controls, but lambs born to younger ewes had lower live weight at birth (3.9 kg versus 4.3 kg in control). The authors attributed the better responses observed in 3-year-old ewes to the fact that after pregnancy and lactation, older ewes could not replenish the lost stores of Se before entering the subsequent pregnancy. Supplementation of ewes during pregnancy with Se boosts the Se status of lambs at birth by increasing their liver reserves and the transfer of Se in colostrum/milk, minimising the risk of nutritional myopathies such as white muscle disease [8].
Selenium is essential for thyroid hormone function as a cofactor in iodothyronine deiodinase, responsible for the conversion of thyroxine (T4) to the more metabolically active 3,3′-5 triiodothyronine (T3) [71]. Selenium deficiency is suggested to induce notable changes in circulating amounts of thyroid hormones in lambs, which may be associated with post-natal disorders such as stillbirths and neonatal deaths [72]. Zinc is also associated with thyroid hormone activation; it is required by the T3 receptor to adopt its biologically active conformation [73]. Therefore, we suggest that combined Se and Zn supplementation using ITM may contribute to improved thyroid function, thermoregulation, basal metabolism and, consequently, to improved lamb survival and growth in this experiment. Nevertheless, studies investigating the interaction of Se, Zn and I supplementation in livestock are scarce, but the positive outcomes guarantee further investigation [74,75,76].
Mild Zn deprivation in pregnant ewes reduces the number of lambs born, lamb survival, and birth weight [8]. It is associated with prolonged labour, retained placenta and pregnancy toxaemia due to Zn deficiency-induced anorexia in ewes [77]. In this study, we suggest that increasing Zn status can contribute to improved ewe and lamb health.
Responses to TM supplementation in pregnant ruminants are sometimes inconclusive in the literature. Many studies evaluate the effect of single trace mineral supplementation in marginal or deficient animals; published literature varies in the chemical form (inorganic or chelated), the method (in-feed, dosed orally or injected), the inclusion (as per requirements or supra-nutritional) or they have confounding factors across experiments including, but not limited to, trace mineral antagonists, environmental conditions, duration of supplementation, and maternal nutrition status [78,79].
The outcomes of this study suggest that similar to what has been demonstrated in cattle [20,24] the use of a commercial ITM product containing a combination of TM allows sheep producers to supplement specific amounts of TM to individual animals improving fertility, health, performance and farm profitability.

4.3. Net Economic Benefits of ITM Supplementation

The partial budget results indicate a high profitability improvement of AU$23/ewe. To this improvement in context, the long-term average Prime Lamb Enterprise Gross Margin since 1970/71 recorded within Agriculture Victoria’s Livestock Farm Monitor Project is AU$36/dry sheep equivalent (dse). This provides producers to optimise the nutritional status of the joined ewe, and by doing so, significantly increase their profitability.

5. Conclusions

These results demonstrate that increasing TM status in ewes using a commercial ITM supplement containing Cu, Se, Zn and Mn before joining and lambing can improve lamb survival and weight at marking. Notably, the benefits were observed in farms without signs of TM deficiency. Therefore, these results help to understand TM supplementation for animal health and performance beyond treating clinical deficiencies. Furthermore, we have demonstrated the economic benefits of a strategic TM supplementation in the lead-up to high-demand periods in sheep. Further studies are recommended to determine the effect of ITM treatment pre-joining and pre-lambing on ewes and lambs’ metabolic, immune and antioxidant functions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.L. and P.A.G.-R.; methodology, J.L. and P.A.G.-R.; economic analysis, G.R.L.; statistical analysis, M.C.; investigation, P.A.G.-R.; data curation, P.A.G.-R.; writing—original draft preparation, P.A.G.-R.; writing—review and editing, P.A.G.-R., G.R.L. and J.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The animal study protocol was approved by the Virbac Animal Health (Australia) Animal Ethics Committee (AEC 601/18) in accordance with the Australian Code for the Care and Use of Animals for Scientific Purposes [29].

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data available upon request.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of former Virbac (Australia) Pty Ltd. staff (Rodney Evans and Susan Sawney) in executing this trial. A section of this manuscript was originally published in the proceedings of the 33rd Conference of the Australian Association of Animal Science (AAAS).

Conflicts of Interest

P.A.G.-R. currently works at Virbac (Australia) Pty Ltd. (VBAU). J.L is a former VBAU employee. G.R.L has received honoraria for speaking at symposia organised by VBAU. M.C has received honoraria for conducting data analysis for VBAU.

References

  1. Mellor, D.J.; Stafford, K.J. Animal Welfare Implications of Neonatal Mortality and Morbidity in Farm Animals. Vet. J. 2004, 168, 118–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Brien, F.; Hebart, M.L.; Hocking Edwards, J.E.; Greeff, J.C.; Hart, K.W.; Refshauge, G.; Gaunt, G.; Behrendt, R.; Thomson, K.; Hinch, G.; et al. Genetics of Lamb Survival: Preliminary Studies of the Information Nucleus Flock. Proc. Assoc. Adv. Anim. Breed. Genet. 2009, 18, 108–111. [Google Scholar]
  3. Nowak, R.; Poindron, P. From Birth to Colostrum: Early Steps Leading to Lamb Survival. Reprod. Nutr. Dev. 2006, 46, 431–446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  4. Geenty, K.G.; Brien, F.D.; Hinch, G.N.; Dobos, R.C.; Refshauge, G.; McCaskill, M.; Ball, A.J.; Behrendt, R.; Gore, K.P.; Savage, D.B.; et al. Reproductive Performance in the Sheep CRC Information Nucleus Using Artificial Insemination across Different Sheep-Production Environments in Southern Australia. Anim. Prod. Sci. 2013, 54, 715–726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. MLA Identifying Lamb Losses. Hamilton Prime Lamb Breeders 2005; MLA: North Sydney, NSW, Australia, 2005. [Google Scholar]
  6. Refshauge, G.; Brien, F.D.; Hinch, G.N.; Van De Ven, R. Neonatal Lamb Mortality: Factors Associated with the Death of Australian Lambs. Anim. Prod. Sci. 2016, 56, 726–735. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. MLA. Unlocking the Keys to Ewe Survival; MLA: North Sydney, NSW, Australia, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  8. Suttle, N. Mineral Nutrition of Livestock, 5th ed.; CABI: Wallingford, UK, 2022. [Google Scholar]
  9. Yatoo, M.I.; Saxena, A.; Deepa, P.M.; Habeab, B.P.; Devi, S.; Jatav, R.S.; Dimri, U. Role of Trace Elements in Animals: A Review. Vet. World 2013, 6, 963–967. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Hefnawy, A.E.; López-Arellano, R.; Revilla-Vázquez, A.; Ramírez-Bribiesca, E.; Tórtora-Pérez, J. Effect of Pre- and Postpartum Selenium Supplementation in Sheep. J. Anim. Vet. Adv. 2008, 7, 61–67. [Google Scholar]
  11. Machado, V.S.; Bicalho, M.L.S.; Pereira, R.V.; Caixeta, L.S.; Knauer, W.A.; Oikonomou, G.; Gilbert, R.O.; Bicalho, R.C. Effect of an Injectable Trace Mineral Supplement Containing Selenium, Copper, Zinc, and Manganese on the Health and Production of Lactating Holstein Cows. Vet. J. 2013, 197, 451–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Chavatte-Palmer, P.; al Gubory, K.; Picone, O.; Heyman, Y. Nutrition Maternelle: Incidence Sur La Fertilité de La Descendance et Importance de La Période Périconceptionelle Pour Le Long Terme. Gynecol. Obstet. Fertil. 2008, 36, 36–920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Mutinati, M.; Piccinno, M.; Roncetti, M.; Campanile, D.; Rizzo, A.; Sciorsci, R. Oxidative Stress during Pregnancy in the Sheep. Reprod. Domest. Anim. 2013, 48, 353–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Phillippo, M.; Humphries, W.R.; Atkinson, T.; Henderson, G.D.; Garthwaite, P.H. The Effect of Dietary Molybdenum and Iron on Copper Status, Puberty, Fertility and Oestrous Cycles in Cattle. J. Agric. Sci. 1987, 109, 321–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Julien, W.E.; Conrad, H.R.; Moxon, A.L. Selenium and Vitamin E and Incidence of Retained Placenta in Parturient Dairy Cows. II. Prevention in Commercial Herds with Prepartum Treatment. J. Dairy Sci. 1976, 59, 1960–1962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Sheetal, S.K.; Choudhary, S.K.; Sengupta, D. Mineral Deficiency Predisposes Occurrence of Retention of Placenta in Crossbred. Vet. World 2014, 7, 1140–1143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  17. Widdowson, E.M.; Dauncey, J.; Shaw, J.C.L. Trace Elements in Foetal and Early Postnatal Development. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 1974, 33, 33–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Hidiroglou, M.; Knipfel, J.E. Maternal-Fetal Relationships of Copper, Manganese, and Sulfur in Ruminants. A Review. J. Dairy Sci. 1981, 64, 1637–1647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Tait, R.M.; Fisher, L.J. Variability in Individual Animal’s Intake of Minerals Offered Free-Choice to Grazing Ruminants. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 1996, 62, 69–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Arthington, J.D.; Ranches, J. Trace Mineral Nutrition of Grazing Beef Cattle. Animals 2021, 11, 2767. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Pogge, D.J.; Richter, E.L.; Drewnoski, M.E.; Hansen, S.L. Mineral Concentrations of Plasma and Liver after Injection with a Trace Mineral Complex Differ among Angus and Simmental Cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 2012, 90, 2692–2698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Jackson, T.D.; Carmichael, R.N.; Deters, E.L.; Messersmith, E.M.; VanValin, K.R.; Loy, D.D.; Hansen, S.L. Comparison of Multiple Single-Use, Pulse-Dose Trace Mineral Products Provided as Injectable, Oral Drench, Oral Paste, or Bolus on Circulating and Liver Trace Mineral Concentrations of Beef Steers. Appl. Anim. Sci. 2020, 36, 26–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Hartman, S.J.; Genther-Schroeder, O.N.; Hansen, S.L. Comparison of Trace Mineral Repletion Strategies in Feedlot Steers to Overcome Diets Containing High Concentrations of Sulfur and Molybdenum. J. Anim. Sci. 2018, 96, 2504–2515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  24. Palomares, R.A. Trace Minerals Supplementation with Great Impact on Beef Cattle Immunity and Health. Animals 2022, 12, 2839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Machado, V.S.; Oikonomou, G.; Lima, S.F.; Bicalho, M.L.S.; Kacar, C.; Foditsch, C.; Felippe, M.J.; Gilbert, R.O.; Bicalho, R.C. The Effect of Injectable Trace Minerals (Selenium, Copper, Zinc, and Manganese) on Peripheral Blood Leukocyte Activity and Serum Superoxide Dismutase Activity of Lactating Holstein Cows. Vet. J. 2014, 200, 299–304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Sales, J.N.S.; Pereira, R.V.V.; Bicalho, R.C.; Baruselli, P.S. Effect of Injectable Copper, Selenium, Zinc and Manganese on the Pregnancy Rate of Crossbred Heifers (Bos Indicus×Bos Taurus) Synchronized for Timed Embryo Transfer. Livest. Sci. 2011, 142, 59–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Shao, T.; Brattain, R.S.; Shike, D.W. Effects of Maternal Supplementation with an Injectable Trace Mineral Containing Copper, Manganese, Zinc, and Selenium on Subsequent Steer Finishing Phase Performance and Carcass Characteristics. Animals 2020, 10, 2226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  28. Stokes, R.S.; Volk, M.J.; Ireland, F.; Shike, D.W. Effects of Maternal Supplementation with an Injectable Trace Mineral on Subsequent Calf Performance and Inflammatory Response. J. Anim. Sci. 2019, 97, 4475–4481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. National Health and Medical Research Council. Australian Code of Practice for the Care and Use of Animals for Scientific Purposes; National Health and Medical Research Council: Canberra, ACT, Australia, 2013; pp. 1–84.
  30. Mundell, L.R.; Jaeger, J.R.; Waggoner, J.W.; Stevenson, J.S.; Grieger, D.M.; Pacheco, L.A.; Bolte, J.W.; Aubel, N.A.; Eckerle, G.J.; Macek, M.J.; et al. Effects of Prepartum and Postpartum Bolus Injections of Trace Minerals on Performance of Beef Cows and Calves Grazing Native Range12. Prof. Anim. Sci. 2012, 28, 82–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  31. Vedovatto, M.; Moriel, P.; Cooke, R.F.; Costa, D.S.; Faria, F.J.C.; Cortada Neto, I.M.; da Pereira, C.S.; Bento, A.L.D.L.; de Almeida, R.G.; Santos, S.A.; et al. Effects of a Single Trace Mineral Injection on Body Parameters, Ovarian Structures, Pregnancy Rate and Components of the Innate Immune System of Grazing Nellore Cows Synchronized to a Fixed-Time AI Protocol. Livest. Sci. 2019, 225, 123–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Vedovatto, M.; Moriel, P.; Cooke, R.F.; Costa, D.S.; Faria, F.J.C.; Cortada Neto, I.M.; Bento, A.L.L.; Rocha, R.F.A.T.; Ferreira, L.C.L.; Almeida, R.G.; et al. Effects of a Single Trace Mineral Injection at Beginning of Fixed-Time AI Treatment Regimen on Reproductive Function and Antioxidant Response of Grazing Nellore Cows. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 2019, 211, 106234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Gabryszuk, M.; Klewiec, J. Effect of Injecting 2- and 3-Year-Old Ewes with Selenium and Selenium–Vitamin E on Reproduction and Rearing of Lambs. Small Rumin. Res. 2002, 43, 127–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Willmore, C.J.; Hall, J.B.; Harrison, S.; Drewnoski, M.E. Effect of a Trace Mineral Injection on Pregnancy Rate of Angus Beef Heifers When Synchronized Using the 14-Day Controlled Internal Drug-Releasing Insert-Prostaglandin F2α Protocol at a Commercial Feedlot. Prof. Anim. Sci. 2015, 31, 588–592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. González-Maldonado, J.; Rangel-Santos, R.; Rodríguez-de Lara, R.; García-Peña, O. Effect of Injectable Trace Mineral Complex Supplementation on Development of Ovarian Structures and Serum Copper and Zinc Concentrations in Over-Conditioned Holstein Cows. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 2017, 181, 57–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Stokes, R.S.; Ralph, A.R.; Mickna, A.J.; Chapple, W.P.; Schroeder, A.R.; Ireland, F.A.; Shike, D.W. Effect of an Injectable Trace Mineral at the Initiation of a 14 Day CIDR Protocol on Heifer Performance and Reproduction. Transl. Anim. Sci. 2017, 1, 458–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Osman, I.; Young, A.; Ledingham, M.A.; Thomson, A.J.; Jordan, F.; Greer, I.A.; Norman, J.E. Leukocyte Density and Pro-Inflammatory Cytokine Expression in Human Fetal Membranes, Decidua, Cervix and Myometrium before and during Labour at Term. Mol. Hum. Reprod. 2003, 9, 41–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  38. Díaz-Castro, J.; Florido, J.; Kajarabille, N.; Prados, S.; De Paco, C.; Ocon, O.; Pulido-Moran, M.; Ochoa, J.J. A New Approach to Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Signaling during Labour in Healthy Mothers and Neonates. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2015, 2015, 178536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Ling, T.; Hernandez-Jover, M.; Sordillo, L.M.; Abuelo, A. Maternal Late-Gestation Metabolic Stress Is Associated with Changes in Immune and Metabolic Responses of Dairy Calves. J. Dairy Sci. 2018, 101, 6568–6580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Abuelo, A.; Hernández, J.; Benedito, J.L.; Castillo, C. Redox Biology in Transition Periods of Dairy Cattle: Role in the Health of Periparturient and Neonatal Animals. Antioxidants 2019, 8, 20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  41. Rizzo, A.; Mutinati, M.; Spedicato, M.; Minoia, G.; Trisolini, C.; Jirillo, F.; Sciorsci, R.L. First Demonstration of an Increased Serum Level of Reactive Oxygen Species during the Peripartal Period in the Ewes. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 2008, 30, 741–746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Albera, E.; Kankofer, M. The Comparison of Antioxidative/Oxidative Profile in Blood, Colostrum and Milk of Early Post-Partum Cows and Their Newborns. Reprod. Domest. Anim. 2011, 46, 763–769. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Liu, S.; Masters, D.; Ferguson, M.; Thompson, A. Vitamin E Status and Reproduction in Sheep: Potential Implications for Australian Sheep Production. Anim. Prod. Sci. 2014, 54, 694–714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Flinn, T.; Kleemann, D.O.; Swinbourne, A.M.; Kelly, J.M.; Weaver, A.C.; Walker, S.K.; Gatford, K.L.; Kind, K.L.; van Wettere, W.H.E.J. Neonatal Lamb Mortality: Major Risk Factors and the Potential Ameliorative Role of Melatonin. J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol. 2020, 11, 107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Venditti, P.; Masullo, P.; Di Meo, S. Effects of Myocardial Ischemia and Reperfusion on Mitochondrial Function and Susceptibility to Oxidative Stress. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. C 2001, 58, 1528–1537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Ozsurekci, Y.; Aykac, K. Oxidative Stress Related Diseases in Newborns. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2016, 2016, 2768365. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Rees, S.; Harding, R.; Walker, D. The Biological Basis of Injury and Neuroprotection in the Fetal and Neonatal Brain. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 2011, 29, 551–563. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  48. Ikeda, T.; Murata, Y.; Quilligan, E.J.; Parer, J.T.; Murayama, T.; Koono, M. Histologic and Biochemical Study of the Brain, Heart, Kidney, and Liver in Asphyxia Caused by Occlusion of the Umbilical Cord in near-Term Fetal Lambs. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2000, 182, 449–457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. Darwish, R.A.; Ashmawy, T.A.M. The Impact of Lambing Stress on Post-Parturient Behaviour of Sheep with Consequences on Neonatal Homeothermy and Survival. Theriogenology 2011, 76, 999–1005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Genther, O.N.; Hansen, S.L. A Multielement Trace Mineral Injection Improves Liver Copper and Selenium Concentrations and Manganese Superoxide Dismutase Activity in Beef Steers. J. Anim. Sci. 2014, 92, 695–704. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  51. Pate, R.T.; Cardoso, F.C. Injectable Trace Minerals (Selenium, Copper, Zinc, and Manganese) Alleviate Inflammation and Oxidative Stress during an Aflatoxin Challenge in Lactating Multiparous Holstein Cows. J. Dairy Sci. 2018, 101, 8532–8543. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Hidiroglou, M. Trace Elements in the Fetal and Neonate Ruminant: A Review. Can. Vet. J. 1980, 21, 328–335. [Google Scholar]
  53. Masters, D.G.; Thompson, A.N.; Masters, D.G.; Thompson, A.N. Grazing Crops: Implications for Reproducing Sheep. Anim. Prod. Sci. 2015, 56, 655–668. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Gooneratne, S.R.; Christensen, D.A. A Survey of Maternal and Fetal Tissue Zinc, Iron, Manganese and Selenium Concentrations in Bovine. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 1989, 69, 151–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Gooneratne, S.R.; Christensen, D.A. A Survey of Maternal Copper Status and Fetal Tissue Copper Concentrations in Saskatchewan Bovine. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 1989, 69, 141–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Grace, N.D.; Watkinson, J.H.; Martinson, P.L. Accumulation of Minerals by the Foetus(Es) and Conceptus of Single- and Twin-Bearing Ewes. N. Z. J. Agric. Res. 1986, 29, 207–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Hostetler, C.E.; Kincaid, R.L.; Mirando, M.A. The Role of Essential Trace Elements in Embryonic and Fetal Development in Livestock. Vet. J. 2003, 166, 125–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Langlands, J.; Bowles, J.; Donald, G.; Smith, A.; Paull, D.; Davies, H. Deposition of Copper, Manganese, Selenium and Zinc in the Ovine Foetus and Associated Tissues. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 1982, 33, 591–605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Vonnahme, K.A.; Luther, J.S.; Reynolds, L.P.; Hammer, C.J.; Carlson, D.B.; Redmer, D.A.; Caton, J.S. Impacts of Maternal Selenium and Nutritional Level on Growth, Adiposity, and Glucose Tolerance in Female Offspring in Sheep. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol 2010, 39, 240–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Camacho, L.E.; Meyer, A.M.; Neville, T.L.; Hammer, C.J.; Redmer, D.A.; Reynolds, L.P.; Caton, J.S.; Vonnahme, K.A. Neonatal Hormone Changes and Growth in Lambs Born to Dams Receiving Differing Nutritional Intakes and Selenium Supplementation during Gestation. Reproduction 2012, 144, 23–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  61. Stokes, R.S.; Ireland, F.A.; Shike, D.W. Influence of Repeated Trace Mineral Injections during Gestation on Beef Heifer and Subsequent Calf Performance. Transl. Anim. Sci. 2019, 3, 493–503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  62. Hall, J.A.; Bobe, G.; Vorachek, W.R.; Estill, C.T.; Mosher, W.D.; Pirelli, G.J.; Gamroth, M. Effect of Supranutritional Maternal and Colostral Selenium Supplementation on Passive Absorption of Immunoglobulin G in Selenium-Replete Dairy Calves. J. Dairy Sci. 2014, 97, 4379–4391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Marques, R.S.; Cooke, R.F.; Rodrigues, M.C.; Cappellozza, B.I.; Mills, R.R.; Larson, C.K.; Moriel, P.; Bohnert, D.W. Effects of Organic or Inorganic Cobalt, Copper, Manganese, and Zinc Supplementation to Late-Gestating Beef Cows on Productive and Physiological Responses of the Offspring. J Anim. Sci. 2016, 94, 1215–1226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  64. Jacometo, C.B.; Osorio, J.S.; Socha, M.; Corrêa, M.N.; Piccioli-Cappelli, F.; Trevisi, E.; Loor, J.J. Maternal Consumption of Organic Trace Minerals Alters Calf Systemic and Neutrophil MRNA and MicroRNA Indicators of Inflammation and Oxidative Stress. J. Dairy Sci. 2015, 98, 7717–7729. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Rock, M.J.; Kincaid, R.L.; Carstens, G.E. Effects of Prenatal Source and Level of Dietary Selenium on Passive Immunity and Thermometabolism of Newborn Lambs. Small Rumin. Res. 2001, 40, 129–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Hidiroglou, M. Zinc, copper and manganese deficiencies and the ruminant skeleton: A review. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 1980, 60, 579–590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Palacios, C. The Role of Nutrients in Bone Health, from A to Z. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2006, 46, 621–628. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  68. Roshanzamir, H.; Rezaei, J.; Fazaeli, H. Colostrum and Milk Performance, and Blood Immunity Indices and Minerals of Holstein Cows Receiving Organic Mn, Zn and Cu Sources. Anim. Nutr. 2020, 6, 61–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  69. Formigoni, A.; Fustini, M.; Archetti, L.; Emanuele, S.; Sniffen, C.; Biagi, G. Effects of an Organic Source of Copper, Manganese and Zinc on Dairy Cattle Productive Performance, Health Status and Fertility. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2011, 164, 191–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Van Niekerk, F.E.; Cloete, S.W.P.; Van Der Merwe, G.D.; Heine, E.W.P.; Scholtz, A.J. Parenteral Copper and Selenium Supplementation of Sheep on Legume-Grass Pastures: Biochemical and Production Responses in Lambs to Maternal Treatment. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 1995, 66, 11–17. [Google Scholar]
  71. Arthur, J.R. The Role of Selenium in Thyroid Hormone Metabolism. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 1991, 69, 1648–1652. [Google Scholar]
  72. Dalir-Naghadeh, B.; Rezaei, S.A. Assessment of Serum Thyroid Hormone Concentrations in Lambs with Selenium Deficiency Myopathy. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2008, 69, 659–663. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Freake, H.C.; Govoni, K.E.; Guda, K.; Huang, C.; Zinn, S.A. Actions and Interactions of Thyroid Hormone and Zinc Status in Growing Rats. J. Nutr. 2001, 131, 1135–1141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  74. Nazifi, S.; Saeb, M.; Abangah, E.; Karimi, T. Studies on the Relationship between Thyroid Hormones and Some Trace Elements in the Blood Serum of Iranian Fat-Tailed Sheep. Vet. Arh. 2008, 78, 159–165. [Google Scholar]
  75. Schmoelzl, S.; Cowley, F.; Schmoelzl, S.; Cowley, F. The Case for Pre-Parturient Selenium and Iodine Supplementation of Ewes for Improving Lamb Survival. Anim. Prod. Sci. 2016, 56, 1263–1274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Hefnawy, A.E.; Youssef, S.; Aguilera, P.V.; Rodríguez, C.V.; Pérez, J.L.T. The Relationship between Selenium and T3 in Selenium Supplemented and Nonsupplemented Ewes and Their Lambs. Vet. Med. Int. 2014, 2014, 105236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  77. Apgar, J.; Everett, G.A.; Fitzgerald, J.A. Dietary Zinc Deprivation Affects Parturition and Outcome of Pregnancy in the Ewe. Nut. Res. 1993, 13, 319–330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Ahola, J.K.; Baker, D.S.; Burns, P.D.; Mortimer, R.G.; Enns, R.M.; Whittier, J.C.; Geary, T.W.; Engle, T.E. Effect of Copper, Zinc, and Manganese Supplementation and Source on Reproduction, Mineral Status, and Performance in Grazing Beef Cattle over a Two-Year Period. J. Anim. Sci. 2004, 82, 2375–2383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  79. Van Emon, M.; Sanford, C.; McCoski, S. Impacts of Bovine Trace Mineral Supplementation on Maternal and Offspring Production and Health. Animals 2020, 10, 2404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table
Table 1. Mean (SD) of blood GSHPx* and Cu levels pre-joining per treatment group.
Table 1. Mean (SD) of blood GSHPx* and Cu levels pre-joining per treatment group.
Item
(Reference Range)		Farm AFam CFarm D
ITMControlITMControlITMControl
GSHPx *
(50–550 U/gHb)		351.4 (83.0)350.9 (57.0)147.2 (33.2)139.6 (21.9)110.7 (33.7)145.7 (43.3)
Cu
(9–25 umol/L)		15.8 (2.2)16.3 (2.4)10.62 (2.8)12.6 (0.6)14.6 (2.2)13.8 (1.5)
Results are the average of 10 ewes per treatment group. ITM (Injectable Trace Mineral) * Glutathione peroxidase enzyme activity; p > 0.05 within farm.
Table
Table 2. Differences in marking rates and weaning weights (point estimates of ITM minus Control, 95% Confidence Intervals for the difference and observed p-values) for lambs born to ewes treated with injectable trace minerals (ITM) and control ewes.
Table 2. Differences in marking rates and weaning weights (point estimates of ITM minus Control, 95% Confidence Intervals for the difference and observed p-values) for lambs born to ewes treated with injectable trace minerals (ITM) and control ewes.
FarmABCDEALL
Marking Rate (%)
Lower 95% CI9%10%−39%−18%NA3%
Point Estimate of Difference
(ITM—Control)		17%16%−10%8%NA9%
Upper 95% CI43%42%19%34%NA21%
p-value0.1930.2360.5030.525NA0.144
Weaning Weights (kg)
Lower 95% CI3.14−0.300.26NA0.011.43
Point Estimate of Difference
(ITM—Control)		4.270.751.94NA0.952.31
Upper 95% CI5.391.803.62NA1.893.18
p-value<0.0010.1580.024NA0.047<0.001
Table
Table 3. Net benefit of using injectable trace minerals pre-joining and pre-lambing in ewes.
Table 3. Net benefit of using injectable trace minerals pre-joining and pre-lambing in ewes.
For 100 Ewes TreatedBenefitValueTotal (AUD)
Extra lambs at marking9%$175$1575
Extra kg/lamb at weaning2.3 kg128 × 2.3 kg × 46% dressed × $8.00 CWT$1083
Cost$1.10/head ITM × 2 + $0.50 labour × 2 = $3.20/ewe100 × $3.20$320
Net benefitPer 1000 ewes $23,380
Per 100 ewes $2338
Per ewe $23.38
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Gonzalez-Rivas, P.A.; Lean, G.R.; Chambers, M.; Liu, J. A Trace Mineral Injection before Joining and Lambing Increases Marking Percentages and Lamb Weights on Diverse Farms in Victoria, Australia. Animals 2023, 13, 178. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13010178

AMA Style

Gonzalez-Rivas PA, Lean GR, Chambers M, Liu J. A Trace Mineral Injection before Joining and Lambing Increases Marking Percentages and Lamb Weights on Diverse Farms in Victoria, Australia. Animals. 2023; 13(1):178. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13010178

Chicago/Turabian Style

Gonzalez-Rivas, Paula A., Graham R. Lean, Michael Chambers, and Jerry Liu. 2023. "A Trace Mineral Injection before Joining and Lambing Increases Marking Percentages and Lamb Weights on Diverse Farms in Victoria, Australia" Animals 13, no. 1: 178. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13010178

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop