Horses in Lithuania in the Late Roman–Medieval Period (3rd–14th C AD) Burial Sites: Updates on Size, Age and Dating
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Zooarchaeological Analysis
2.2. Radiocarbon Dating
2.3. Site Description
2.3.1. The Late Roman–post-Migration Period, 3rd–7th C AD
2.3.2. The Viking Period, 8/9–11/12th C AD
2.3.3. The Medieval Period, 12/13–14th C AD
3. Results
3.1. Withers Height
3.2. Robusticity
3.3. Age
4. Discussion
4.1. AMS 14C Dating of the Migration Period Horses
4.2. Dynamics of Withers Height
4.3. Robustness
4.4. Age of Horses
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Piličiauskas, G.; Kisielienė, D.; Piličiauskienė, G.; Gaižauskas, L.; Kalinauskas, A. Comb Ware culture in Lithuania: New evidence from Šventoji 43. Liet. Archeol. 2019, 45, 67–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bliujienė, A.; Skipitytė, R.; Garbaras, A.; Miliauskienė, Ž.; Šapolaitė, J.; Ežerinskis, Ž.; Čeponkus, J.; Simčenka, E.; Minkevičius, K.; Piličiauskienė, G. The first data on the human diet in Late Roman and Early Migration period western Lithuania: Evidence from stable isotope, archaebotanical and zooarchaeological analyses. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 2020, 33, 102545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bliujienė, A.; Stančikaitė, M.; Piličiauskienė, G.; Mažeika, J.; Butkus, D. Human–horse burials in Lithuania in the late second to seventh century AD: A multidisciplinary approach. Eur. J. Archaeol. 2017, 20, 682–709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marburgietis, V. Naujoji Prūsijos Kronika; Vaga: Vilnius, Lithuania, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Sliužinskas, R. The Image of the Horse in Poetic Texts of Lithuanian Folk Songs. Archaeol. Balt. 2009, 11, 364–373. [Google Scholar]
- Šukytė, G. The behaviour of horses in Lithuanian narrative folklore. Archaeol. Balt. 2009, 11, 357–363. [Google Scholar]
- Müller-Wille, M. Pferdegrab und Pferdeopfer im frühen Mittelalter. Mit einem Beitrag von H. Vierck. Pferdegräber im angelsächsischen England. Ber. Van De Rijksd. Voor Het Oudheidkd. Bodemonderz. 1971, 20–21, 119–248. [Google Scholar]
- Cross, P.J. Horse burial in first millennium AD Britain: Issues of interpretation. Eur. J. Archaeol. 2011, 14, 190–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bökönyi, S. History of Domestic Mammals in Central and Eastern Europe; Akadémiai Kiadó: Budapest, Hungary, 1974. [Google Scholar]
- Hyland, A. Equus. The Horse in the Roman World; Batsford: London, UK, 1990. [Google Scholar]
- Johnstone, C.J. A Biometric Study of Equids in the Roman World. Ph.D. Thesis, University of York, York, UK, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Clutton-Brock, J. Horse Power; British Museum (Natural History): London, UK, 1992. [Google Scholar]
- Bartosiewicz, L. Ex oriente equus A brief history of horses between the early Bronze Age and the Middle Ages. Studia Archaeol. 2011, 12, 127–136. [Google Scholar]
- Chudakov, M.G. Kul‘t Konia v Prikam‘e. Iz Istorii Dokapitalistitcheskich Formacij; OGIZ: Moskva, Russia, 1933; pp. 251–279. [Google Scholar]
- Kaloev, B.A. Obriad Posveschenia Konia u Osetin. In Proceedings of the Doklad na VII Meszdunarodnym Kongrese Antropologicheskich i Etnograficheskich Nayk, Moskva, Russia, 3 August 1964. [Google Scholar]
- Vaitkunskienė, L. Žirgų aukos Lietuvoje. Liet. Archeol. 1981, 2, 58–77. [Google Scholar]
- Bertašius, M.; Daugnora, L. Viking age horse graves from Kaunas region (Middle Lithuania). Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 2001, 11, 387–399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bliujienė, A.; Steponaitis, V. Wealthy horsemen in the remote and tenebrous forests of East Lithuania during the Migration Period. Archaeol. Balt. 2009, 11, 185–205. [Google Scholar]
- Kurila, L. Symbolic Horse Burials in the Iron Age of East Lithuania. Archaeol. Balt. 2009, 11, 242–253. [Google Scholar]
- Vitkūnas, M. Kada lietuviai pradėjo kautis raiti? Lituanistica 2011, 57, 54–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bertašius, M. Vidurio Lietuva VIII–XII a; Vytauto Didžiojo Universitetas: Kaunas, Lithuania, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Barauskas, V.; Antanavičius, J. Pakalniškių kapinyne iškastų žirgų kaulų liekanų archeologiniai, morfologiniai bei osteometriniai tyrimai. Liet. Vet. Akad. Darb. 1976, 11, 13–18. [Google Scholar]
- Piličiauskienė, G.; Blaževičius, P. Žinduoliai Vilniaus pilyse. In Vilniaus Pilių Fauna: Nuo Kepsnio Iki Draugo; Vilniaus Universiteto Leidykla: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2018; pp. 19–101. [Google Scholar]
- Dobat, A.S.; Price, T.D.; Kveiborg, J.; Ilkjær, J.; Rowley-Conwy, P. The four horses of an Iron Age apocalypse: War–horses from the third–century weapon sacrifice at Illerup Ådal (Denmark). Antiquity 2014, 88, 191–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Volkaitė Kulikauskienė, R. Lietuvio Kario Žirgas; Vilnius: Vilnius, Lithuania, 1971. [Google Scholar]
- Görman, M. Influences from the Huns on Scandinavian Sacrificial Customs during 300–500 AD. Scr. Inst. Donneriani Abo. 1993, 15, 275–298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barauskas, V. Arklių griaučių tyrimo rezultatų apyrašas (1970 m.) (=Report of horses skeletons analysis (1970 m.). In Degsnės- Labotiškių Pilkapių, Molėtų Raj., Dubingių Apylinkė, 1970 m. Kasinėjimų Ataskaita. Unpublished Excavations Report; Tautavičius, A., Ed.; Archive of the Lithuanian Institute of History: Vilnius, Lithuania, 1971. [Google Scholar]
- Paaver, K. Loshadi iz Raskopok Kurganov Kriemala. Unpublished Report of Zooarchaeological Analysis; Archive of the Lithuanian Institute of History: Vilnius, Lithuania, 1962; pp. 1–12. [Google Scholar]
- Piličiauskienė, G.; Kurila, L.; Simčenka, E.; Lidén, K.; Kooijman, E.; Kielman–Schmitt, M.; Piličiauskas, G. The origin of Late Roman Period–Post–Migration Period Lithuanian horses. Heritage 2022, 5, 332–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kurila, L.; Piličiauskienė, G.; Simčenka, E.; Liden, K.; Kooijman, E.; Kielman–Schmitt, M.; Miliauskienė, Ž. Late Roman and Migration Period Elites from Lithuania-Locals or Migrants? Reinterpretation of the Current Concept Based on 87Sr/86Sr Stable Isotope Analysis Results; Vilnius University: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2022; in preparation. [Google Scholar]
- Kurila, L.; Piličiauskienė, G.; Simčenka, E.; Miliauskienė, Ž.; Ežerinskis, Ž.; Šapolaitė, J.; Garbaras, A. New Human Bone Radiocarbon Dates from the Roman Period-Migration Period Lithuanian Cemeteries. Radiocarbon 2022. submitted. [Google Scholar]
- Silver, I.A. The ageing of domestic mammals. In Science in Archaeology: A Survey of Progress and Research; Brothwell, D., Higgs, E.S., Eds.; Thames and Hudson: London, UK, 1969; pp. 283–302. [Google Scholar]
- Levine, M.A. The use of crown height measurements and eruption–wear sequences to age horse teeth. In Ageing and Sexing Animal Bones from Archaeological Sites; Wilson, B., Grigson, C., Payne, S., Eds.; BAR British Series 109; BAR: Oxford, UK, 1982; pp. 223–250. [Google Scholar]
- Kiesewalter, L. Skelettmessungen am Pferde als Beitrage zur theoretische Grundlage der Beurteilungslehre des Pferdes (Inaugural–Dissertation); Philosophischen Facultät der Universität Leipzig: Leipzig, Germany, 1888. [Google Scholar]
- May, E. Widerristhöhe und Langknochenmasse bei Pferden―einimmer noch aktuelles Problem. Z. Saugetierkd. 1985, 50, 368–382. [Google Scholar]
- Brauner, A.A. Materialy k Poznaniju Zhivotnych Rossii: Loshadi Kurgannych Pogrebenij Tirapol’skogo uezda Chersonskoi Gubernii; Zapiski Imperatorskogo Obshczestva Sel’skovo Chozjajstva Juzhnoj Rossii: Odesa, Rossija, 1916; Volume 1, p. 184. [Google Scholar]
- Von den Driesch, A. A guide to the measurement of animal bones from archaeological sites. In Peaboby Museum Bulletin 1; Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1976. [Google Scholar]
- Szidat, S.; Vogel, E.; Gubler, R.; Lösch, S. Radiocarbon dating of bones at the LARA Laboratory in Bern, Switzerland. Radiocarbon 2017, 59, 831–842. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- DeNiro, M.J. Postmortem preservation and alteration of in vivo bone collagen isotope ratios in relation to palaeodietary reconstruction. Nature 1985, 317, 806–809. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ambrose, S.H. Preparation and characterization of bone and tooth collagen for isotopic analysis. J. Archaeol. Sci. 1990, 17, 431–451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Klinken, G.J. Bone collagen quality indicators for palaeodietary and radiocarbon measurements. J. Archaeol. Sci. 1999, 26, 687–695. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reimer, P.J.; Austin, W.E.N.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C.; Butzin, M.; Cheng, H.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; et al. The Intcal20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0–55 cal kBP). Radiocarbon 2020, 62, 725–757. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steponaitis, V. Paduobė-Šaltaliūnė barrow cemetery III. In A Hundred Years of Archaeological Discoveries in Lithuania; Zabiela, G., Baubonis, Z., Marcinkevičiūtė, E., Eds.; Society of the Lithuanian Archaeology: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2012; pp. 114–121. [Google Scholar]
- Vaitkunskienė, L. Pagrybio kapinynas. Liet. Archeol. 1995, 13, 4–207. [Google Scholar]
- Semėnas, V. Pavajuonio-Rėkučių pilkapyno tyrinėjimai 1994 metais. In Archeologiniai Tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 1994 ir 1995 Metais; Lietuvos Archeologijos Draugija: Vilnius, Lithuania, 1996; p. 85. [Google Scholar]
- Kurila, L. East Lithuanian barrows-Burial in the cradle of Lithuanian tribes. In A Hundred Years of Archaeological Discoveries in Lithuania; Zabiela, G., Baubonis, Z., Marcinkevičiūtė, E., Eds.; Society of the Lithuanian Archaeology: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2016; pp. 192–207. [Google Scholar]
- Kazakevičius, V. Plinkaigalio kapinynas. Liet. Archeol. 1993, 10, 3–217. [Google Scholar]
- Bitner-Wróblewska, A. Between Curonia and Bavaria. Animal-head brooches resulting from long-distance connections during Migration Period. Archaeol. Balt. 2000, 4, 181–197. [Google Scholar]
- Kontny, B. The making of the Vidivarii: Germanic and Baltic interculturation in the late 5th century. In The Migration Period between the Oder and the Vistula; Bursche, A., Hines, J., Zapolska, A., Eds.; Brill: Leiden, The Netherlands; Boston, MA, USA, 2020; pp. 649–688. [Google Scholar]
- Tautavičius, A. Taurapilio „kunigaikščio” kapas. Liet. Archeol. 1981, 2, 18–43. [Google Scholar]
- Tautavičius, A. Degsnės-Labotiškių Pilkapių, Molėtų raj., Dubingių Apylinkė, 1970 m. Kasinėjimų Ataskaita. Unpublished Excavations Report; Archive of the Lithuanian Institute of History: Vilnius, Lithuania, 1971. [Google Scholar]
- Simniškytė, A. Jakšiškio pilkapynas. In Archeologiniai Tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 2000 Metais; Lietuvos Archeologijos Draugija: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2001; pp. 74–75. [Google Scholar]
- Semėnas, V. Kretuonių I pilkapių grupės tyrinėjimai 1994 metais. In Archeologiniai Tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 1994 ir 1995 Metais; Lietuvos Archeologijos Draugija: Vilnius, Lithuania, 1996; pp. 84–85. [Google Scholar]
- Bertašius, M. Marvelė. Ein Bestattungsplatz Mit Mittellitauischer Pferdegräber. Marvelės Žirgų Kapinynas, II; KTU Leidykla: Kaunas, Lithuania, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Bertašius, M. Priešistorinė Marvelės Bendruomenė: Kultūrinės ir Socialinės Raidos Aspektai; KTU Leidykla: Kaunas, Lithuania, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Butėnas, E. Salako (Kurganų) Pilkapyno (Zarasų raj.) 2001 m. Archeologinių Tyrinėjimų Ataskaita; Unpublished Excavations Report; Archive of the Lithuanian Institute of History: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Luchtanas, A. Varliškių pilkapyno tyrinėjimai. In Archeologiniai Tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 1998 ir 1999 Metais; Lietuvos Archeologijos Draugija: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2000; pp. 189–194. [Google Scholar]
- Luchtanas, A.; Vengalis, R.; Vėlius, G. Personal communication, 10 November 2021.
- Urbanavičius, V.; Urbanavičienė, S. Archeologiniai tyrimai. Obelių kapinynas. Liet. Archeol. 1981, 6, 4–108. [Google Scholar]
- Varnas, A. Masteikių kapinyno 1993 metų tyrimai. In Archeologiniai Tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 1992 ir 1993 Metais; Lietuvos Archeologijos Draugija: Vilnius, Lithuania, 1994; pp. 178–184. [Google Scholar]
- Varnas, A. Masteikių kapinyno (Kauno r.) tyrimai 1994 metais. In Archeologiniai Tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 1994 ir 1995 Metais; Lietuvos Archeologijos Draugija: Vilnius, Lithuania, 1996; pp. 77–78. [Google Scholar]
- Piličiauskienė, G.; Skipitytė, R.; Blaževičius, P.; Micelicaitė, V.; Zarankaitė–Margienė, T. Dogs in Lithuanian during the 14th–18th C AD: Diet and Function. 2018; in press. [Google Scholar]
- Luchtanas, A.; Vėlius, G.; Bitner-Wróblewska, A. Kernavė-Litewska Troja; Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne: Warszawa, Poland, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Vaičiūnienė, D. Kernavės Viršutinio Miesto Tyrinėjimai. Archeologiniai Tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 1998 ir 1999 m; Lietuvos Archeologijos Draugija: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2000; pp. 131–134. [Google Scholar]
- Vaičiūnienė, D. Kernavės viršutinis miestas. In Archeologiniai Tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 2000 m; Lietuvos Archeologijos Draugija: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2001; pp. 40–41. [Google Scholar]
- Vaičiūnienė, D. Kernavės Viršutinis Miestas Archeologiniai Tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 2001 m; Lietuvos Archeologijos Draugija: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2002; pp. 59–60. [Google Scholar]
- Žulkus, V. Viduramžių Klaipėda; Žara: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Zabiela, G. Klaipėdos Pilies (10303) 2016 m. Detaliųjų Archeologinių Tyrimų Ataskaita. Tyrimai. Vol. 1; Unpublished Excavations Report; Archive of the Lithuanian Institute of History: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Zabiela, G.; Kraniauskas, R.; Ubis, E.; Ubė, M. Klaipėdos pilies šiaurinė kurtina. In Archeologiniai Tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 2016 Metais; Lietuvos Archeologijos Draugija: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2017; pp. 183–193. [Google Scholar]
- Ekdahl, S. Horses and crossbows: Two important warfare advantages of the Teutonic Order in Prussia. In The Military Orders 2, Welfare and Warfare; Nicholson, H., Ed.; Routledge: London, UK; New York, NY, USA, 1998; pp. 119–152. [Google Scholar]
- Jurginis, J.; Šidlauskas, A. Imperatoriaus Pasiuntinio Sigismundo Heberšteino 1517 ir 1526 Metų Kelionėse Surinktos Žinios. Kraštas ir Žmonės; Mokslas: Vilnius, Lithuania, 1988; pp. 56–69. [Google Scholar]
- Schulz, F. Podróże Inflantczyka z Rygi do Warszawy i po Polsce w Latach 1791–1793; Czytelnik: Warszawa, Poland, 1956. [Google Scholar]
- Piličiauskienė, G. Unpublished data.
- Macijauskienė, V.; Juras, R. An attempt at analysing the selected traits of body conformation, growth, performance and genetic structure of Lithuanian native Zemaitukai horse, the breed being preserved from extinction. Anim. Sci. Pap. 2003, 21, 35–46. [Google Scholar]
- Benecke, N. Zur Domestikation des Pferdes in Mittel– und Osteuropa: Einige neue archa¨ozoologische Befunde. In Die Indogermanen und das Pferd; Hänsel, B., Zimmer, S., Eds.; Archaeolingua Alapítvány: Budapest, Hungary, 1994; pp. 123–144. [Google Scholar]
- Rosengren, E. The Iron Age horse. In The Sösdala Horsemen and the Equestrian Elite of Fifth Century Europe; Fabech, C., Näsman, U., Eds.; Jutland Archaeological Society: Moesgård, Denmark, 2017; pp. 195–201. [Google Scholar]
- Albarella, U.; Johnstone, C.; Vickers, K. The development of animal husbandry from the Late Iron Age to the end of the Roman period: A case study from South–East Britain. J. Archaeol. Sci. 2008, 35, 1828–1848. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Onar, V.; Pazvant, G.; Pasicka, E.; Armutak, A.; Alpak, H. Byzantine Horse Skeletons of Theodosius Harbour: 2. Withers height estimation. Rev. Med. Vet. 2015, 166, 30–42. [Google Scholar]
- Elsner, J.; Deschler–Erb, S.; Stopp, B.; Hofreiter, M.; Schibler, J.; Schlumbaum, A. Mitochondrial d–loop variation, coat colour and sex identification of Late Iron Age horses in Switzerland. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 386–396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Makowiecki, D. Diachronic changes in the size of domestic mammals in Medieval and Post-Medieval Poland. Ann. Nat. Hist. Mus. Wien. Ser. A 2018, 120, 335–354. [Google Scholar]
- Lyublyanovics, K. Size Variability in Roman Period Horses from Hungary. In Recent Advances in Ageing and Sexing Animal Bones; Ruscillo, D., Ed.; Oxbow Books: Oxford, UK, 2006; pp. 237–246. [Google Scholar]
- Zinoviev, A. Horses from two burials in Samland and Natangen (Second century, Kaliningradskaya Province, Russia). Archaeol. Balt. 2009, 11, 50–55. [Google Scholar]
- Trbojević Vukičević, T.; Rapan Papeša, A.; Alić, I.; Ekert Kabalin, A.; Ostović, M.; Kužir, S. Contribution to understanding Avar burials with equids in Croatia: Detailed archaeozoological analysis. Revue Méd. Vét. 2017, 168, 73–80. [Google Scholar]
- Olsen, S.L. The exploitation of horses at Botai, Kazakhstan. In Prehistoric Steppe Adaptation and the Horse; Levine, M., Renfrew, C., Boyle, K., Eds.; McDonald Inst. for Archaeol. Res: Cambridge, UK, 2003; pp. 83–104. [Google Scholar]
- Chechushkov, I.V.; Usmanova, E.R.; Kosintsev, P.A. Early evidence for horse utilization in the Eurasian steppes and the case of the Novoil’inovskiy 2 Cemetery in Kazakhstan. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 2020, 32, 102420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leifsson, R. Ritual Animal Killing and Burial Customs in Viking Age Iceland. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Iceland School of Humanities, Reykiavik, Iceland, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Lepetz, S.; Debue, K.; Batsukh, D. To accompany and honour the deceased: The horses from the graves of the Pazyryk culture. In Masters of the Steppe. The Impact of the Scythians and Later Nomad Societies of Eurasia, Proceedings of the Conference Held at the British Museum, 27–29 October 2017; Pankova, S.V., Simpson, J., Eds.; Archaeopress Archaeology: Oxford, UK, 2017; pp. 227–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pokrovskij, F.V. K issledovaniju kurganov i gorodishcz na vostocznoj okraine sovremennoj Litvy. In Trudy Devjatago Arxeologicheskago Sjezda v Vilʹne 1893, II; Uvarova, P.S., Sluckij, S.S., Eds.; Tipografija È. Lissnera i Ju. Romana: Moskva, Russia, 1897; pp. 138–196. [Google Scholar]
- Pluskowski, A.; Seetah, K.; Maltby, M.; Banerjea, R.; Black, S.; Kalniņš, G. Late–Medieval Horse Remains at Cēsis Castle, Latvia, and the Teutonic Order’s Equestrian Resources in Livonia. Mediev. Archaeol. 2018, 62, 351–379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rannamäe, E. A Zooarchaeological Study of Animal Consumption in Medieval Viljandi. Master’s Thesis, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Pruski, W. Hodowla Zwierząt Gospodarskich w Królestwie Polskim w Latach 1815–1918, Tom, I; Państwowe Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Leśne: Warszawa, Poland, 1967. [Google Scholar]
- Rünger, F. Herkunft, Rassezugehörigkeit, Züchtung und Haltung der Ritterpferde des Deutschen Ordens. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der ostpreussischen Pferdezucht und der deutschen Pferdezucht im Mittelalter. Z. Für Tierzüchtung Und Züchtungsbiologie Einschl. Tierenährung 1925, 2, 211–308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Urbanavičius, V. Obelių Senkapis, Ukmergės raj. (1978 ir 1979 m. Kasinėjimų Ataskaita); Unpublished Excavations Report; Archive of Lithuanian Institute of History: Vilnius, Lithuania, 1980. [Google Scholar]
- McCormick, F. The horse in early Ireland. Anthropozoologicia 2007, 42, 85–104. [Google Scholar]
- Ameen, C.; Benkert, H.; Fraser, T.; Gordon, R.; Holmes, M.; Johnson, W.; Lauritsen, M.; Maltby, M.; Rapp, K.; Townend, T.; et al. In search of the ‘great horse’: A zooarchaeological assessment of horses from England (AD 300–1650). Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 2021, 31, 1247–1257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bartosiewicz, L. Phenotype and age in protohistoric horses: A comparison between Avar and Early Hungarian crania. In Recent Advances in Ageing and Sexing Animal Bones; Ruscillo, D., Ed.; Oxbow Books: Oxford, UK, 2006; pp. 204–215. [Google Scholar]
- Jankauskas, S. Gyvulių Ligos; Mūsų Rytojus: Kaunas, Lithuania, 1928. [Google Scholar]
No. | Burial Site, Grave | Number of Measured Bones | WH Mean, cm | WH Mean/Site | MC SD/GL × 100 | Age, Years | Lab. Code | AMS 14C BP | Cal AD 95.4% | %N | %C | C/N | % Collagen | Origin According to 87Sr/86Sr |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Marvelė 113 | 6 | 127.9 | 127.9 | 15.9 | 9–10 | FTMC-OR27-21 | 1777 ± 48 | 134–408 | 1.1 | 3.3 | 3.5 | 1.0 | local |
2 | Paduobė-Šaltaliūnė III 17 | 1, cranium | 137.7 | 137.7 | - | 7–8 | FTMC-OR27-52(1) | 1657 ± 36 | 259–537 | 9.2 | 29.0 | 3.1 | 5.7 | non-local |
FTMC-OR27-52(2) | 1667 ± 36 | 256–535 | 8.1 | 25.6 | 3.2 | 8.6 | ||||||||
FTMC-OR27-52(3) | 1652 ± 28 | 262–535 | 12.5 | 34.2 | 2.7 | 3.1 | ||||||||
FTMC-OR27-52 (Oxcal R_Combine) | 1657 ± 19 | 263–530 | - | - | - | - | ||||||||
3 | Pagrybis 23 | 1 | 132.4 | 129.5 | 14.4 | 5–6 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
4 | Pagrybis 55 | - | - | - | 1–2 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
5 | Pagrybis 73 | - | - | - | 3–4 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
6 | Pagrybis 92 | - | - | - | 2.5+ | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
7 | Pagrybis 99 | - | - | - | 4–5 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
8 | Pagrybis 104 | 2 | 132.3 | 15.6 | 3.5–4 | FTMC-OR27-24 | 1410 ± 37 | 580–668 | 10.2 | 27.9 | 3.2 | 4.9 | local | |
9 | Pagrybis 142 | 2 | 130.1 | 14.0 | 1.5+ | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
10 | Pagrybis 145 | 2 | 129.3 | 16.0 | 8–9 | FTMC-JD93-3 | 1406 ± 27 | 601–662 | 15.7 | 45.0 | 3.3 | 3.3 | local | |
11 | Pagrybis 157 | 2 | 127.3 | 16.4 | 9–10 | FTMC-JD93-4 | 1501 ± 27 | 540–640 | 15.5 | 44.4 | 3.3 | 3.3 | local | |
12 | Pagrybis 173 | - | - | - | 9–10 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
13 | Pagrybis 207 | 2 | 125.4 | 14.0 | 7–8 | FTMC-OR27-44 | 1448 ± 35 | 565–654 | 12.3 | 33.8 | 3.2 | 3.1 | non-local | |
14 | Pavajuonis-Rėkučiai 6 | 3 | 129.3 | 129.3 | - | 5–7 | FTMC-OR27-16 | 1719 ± 49 | 234–426 | 4.7 | 12.9 | 3.2 | 2.6 | local |
15 | Plinkaigalis 2 | 4 | 127.0 | 131.2 | 14.2 | 4–5 | FTMC-OR27-20 | 1376 ± 50 | 585–774 | 2.0 | 5.7 | 3.3 | 1.5 | local |
16 | Plinkaigalis 3A | 1 | 129.4 | 14.5 | 1.5–2 | FTMC-JD93-1 | 1447 ± 29 | 574–651 | 15.5 | 44.3 | 3.3 | local | ||
17 | Plinkaiigalis 3B | 2 | 137.3 | 14.6 | 7–8 | FTMC-JD93-2 | 1406 ± 28 | 600–663 | 15.7 | 44.7 | 3.3 | non-local | ||
18 | Taurapilis 1 | 3 | 131.0 | 129.4 | - | 3.5+ | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
19 | Taurapilis 4 | 5 | 133.3 | 15.1 | 8–10 | FTMC-OR27-50 | 1656 ± 37 | 259–538 | 5.5 | 17.2 | 3.1 | 8.4 | local | |
20 | Taurapilis 5 * | 3 | 125.8 | 14.6 | 3–3.5 | FTMC-OR27-19 | 1705 ± 50 | 236–530 | 10.5 | 28.6 | 3.2 | 2.6 | local | |
21 | Taurapilis 6 * | 4 | 127.6 | 14.7 | 3–3.5 | FTMC-OR27-18 | 1714 ± 48 | 235–430 | 10.6 | 28.1 | 3.1 | 3.4 | local |
No. | Period | Burial Site, Grave | Number of Measured Bones | Withers Height | Mean WH/Site | MC SD/GL × 100 | Age, Years | Pathology |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Viking | Degsnė-Labotiškės 2 | 5 | 128.6 | 125.7 | 11.6 | 5–6 | |
2 | Degsnė-Labotiškės 5 | 5 | 122.8 | 14.8 | 15+ | spavin | ||
3 | Degsnė-Labotiškės 14 | - | - | - | 1–1.5 | |||
4 | Jakšiškis 1 | 4 | 120.7 | 120.7 | - | 8–9 | ||
5 | Kretuonai 1 | 3 | 127.4 | 127.4 | 13.8 | 4.5+ | spavin | |
6 | Marvelė, MNI 118 | 174 | 123.5 | 123.5 | 14.6 | |||
7 | Salakas 2 | 2 | 128.5 | 128.5 | - | 1–1.5 | ||
8 | Varliškės 7 | 3 | 124.3 | 124.3 | - | 7–8 | ||
10 | Medieval | Masteikiai 11 | 1 | 135.0 | 129.3 | - | 8–9 | |
11 | Masteikiai 40 | 1 | 128.8 | - | 1.5+ | |||
12 | Masteikiai 41 | 2 | 142.8 | - | 5–6 | |||
13 | Masteikiai 45 | 3 | 125.1 | 14.1 | 11–12 | abnormal teeth wearing, inflammation of teeth roots | ||
14 | Masteikiai 46 | 3 | 139.5 | 16 | 9–10 | |||
15 | Masteikiai 48 | 1 | 113.0 | - | 8–9 | inflammation of canine roots | ||
16 | Masteikiai 50 | 3 | 115.9 | - | 12–14 | |||
17 | Masteikiai 51 | 2 | 140.1 | 14.4 | 12–13 | spavin, abnormal teeth wearing, inflammation of teeth roots | ||
18 | Masteikiai 52 | 2 | 123.9 | - | 12–13 | spavin | ||
19 | Obeliai 3 | 1 | 137.3 | 124.8 | - | 1.8+ | spavin | |
20 | Obeliai 4 | 5 | 108.2 | 14.8 | 3.5+ | |||
21 | Obeliai 5 | 1 | 135.3 | 14.9 | 5–6 | |||
22 | Obeliai 17 | 4 | 118.3 | 14.1 | 3.5+ | |||
23 | Pakalniškiai 1 (163) | 2 | 128.7 | 126.9 | - | 3.5+ | ||
24 | Pakalniškiai 2 (164) | 3 | 114.5 | 14.9 | 7–8 | |||
25 | Pakalniškiai 20 | 2 | 127.5 | 15.1 | 7–8 | spavin | ||
26 | Pakalniškiai 165 | 3 | 140.3 | 14.5 | 13–15 | abnormal teeth wearing, inflammation of teeth roots | ||
27 | Pakalniškiai 167 | 4 | 136.1 | - | 8–9 | |||
28 | Pakalniškiai 175 | 1 | 130.3 | - | 8–9 | |||
29 | Pakalniškiai 184 | 3 | 119.5 | 14.1 | 3.5+ | |||
30 | Pakalniškiai 187 | 2 | 116.6 | - | 78 | |||
31 | Pakalniškiai 190 | 2 | 117.1 | - | 1314 | spavin | ||
32 | Pakalniškiai 192.1 | 4 | 114.9 | 15.2 | 5–6 | |||
33 | Pakalniškiai 192.2 | 1 | 150.9 | - | 1.5+ |
No. | Site | Number of Measured Bones | WH Min | WH Max | WH Mean | SD | Number of Measured Metacarpals | MC SD/GL × 100 Min | MC SD/GL × 100 Max | MC SD/GL × 100 Mean | MC SD/GL × 100 SD |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Kernavė town | 25 | 108.7 | 143.4 | 128.2 | 9.1 | 11 | 13.1 | 16.2 | 14.6 | 0.9 |
2 | Vilnius Lower castle | 9 | 119.0 | 155.6 | 128.1 | 11.0 | 5 | 14.4 | 15.7 | 15.2 | 0.5 |
3 | Memelburg, Order castle | 8 | 115.8 | 148.5 | 132.8 | 12.4 | 3 | 15.1 | 15.4 | 15.3 | 0.1 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Piličiauskienė, G.; Kurila, L.; Ežerinskis, Ž.; Šapolaitė, J.; Garbaras, A.; Zagurskytė, A.; Micelicaitė, V. Horses in Lithuania in the Late Roman–Medieval Period (3rd–14th C AD) Burial Sites: Updates on Size, Age and Dating. Animals 2022, 12, 1549. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12121549
Piličiauskienė G, Kurila L, Ežerinskis Ž, Šapolaitė J, Garbaras A, Zagurskytė A, Micelicaitė V. Horses in Lithuania in the Late Roman–Medieval Period (3rd–14th C AD) Burial Sites: Updates on Size, Age and Dating. Animals. 2022; 12(12):1549. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12121549
Chicago/Turabian StylePiličiauskienė, Giedrė, Laurynas Kurila, Žilvinas Ežerinskis, Justina Šapolaitė, Andrius Garbaras, Aurelija Zagurskytė, and Viktorija Micelicaitė. 2022. "Horses in Lithuania in the Late Roman–Medieval Period (3rd–14th C AD) Burial Sites: Updates on Size, Age and Dating" Animals 12, no. 12: 1549. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12121549