Respiratory and Neurological Disease across Different Ethnic Groups Is Influenced by the Microbiome
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Microbiome Populations in the Nose and Impacts of Dysbiosis in Disease States
2.1. Asthma
2.2. Acute Respiratory Illnesses
2.3. Rhinitis and Chronic Rhinosinusitis
2.4. Otitis Media
2.5. Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis
2.6. Atopic Dermatitis and Psoriasis
2.7. Neurological Illness: Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and Multiple Sclerosis
3. Antibiotic Properties of Nasal Microbiome and Impacts on Local Immune Response
3.1. Antibiotic Microorganisms
3.2. Impact of Nasal Microbiome on the Immune System
4. Diet, Behavior and Environmental Changes and Impacts on Respiratory Disease
4.1. Diet
4.2. Tobacco/Smoking
4.3. Environment
5. More on Health Disparities and Limitations
6. Potential Pitfalls
7. Concluding Remarks
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Disease | Greater Abundance Linked to Disease | Affected Group | Known Risk Factors |
---|---|---|---|
Chronic otitis media with effusion (COME) | Corynebacterium, Streptococcus, Moraxella [16] | Caucasian Americans (CAs) [17] | allergy or atopy, upper respiratory tract infection, snoring, acute otitis media, passive smoke exposure and low social status [17,18] |
Pediatric Asthma | Corynebacterium [19] | Puerto-Ricans (PRs), African Americans (AAs) [20] | parental asthma, prenatal environmental tobacco smoke, having cats and prematurity [21,22] |
Chronic Rhinosinusitis (CRS) | Corynebacterium, Burkholderia [23,24] | Latino Americans (LAs) [24] | Asthma, genetics, GERD, rheumatoid arthritis, migraine, cigarette smoking [25] |
COVID-19 | Salmonella, Scardovia, Serratia and Pectobacteriaceae [26,27] | AAs and Asian Americans (AS) [28] | Hypertension, coronary artery disease, history of stroke, diabetes, obesity, severe obesity, chronic kidney disease, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [29] |
Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis (GPA) | Staphylococcus aureus [30] | Not Distinguishable [31] | Animal (horses) exposure, history of bronchiectasis, autoimmune disease, chronic renal impairment, Pulmonary fibrosis [32,33] |
Acute Otitis Media (AOM) | Haemophilus, Moraxella, and Neisseria [16] | CAs [34] | Out-of-home daycare, multiple children living in the home, and mother’s multiparity [34] |
Influenza B virus (IBV) | Streptococcus species and Prevotella salivae [35] | Diabetes, chronic respiratory disease [36] | |
Influenza A virus (IAV) | Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcu pneumoniae, Klebsiella and Aerococcus [37] | ||
Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) | CAs [38] | abuse of alcohol and tobacco, malnutrition and obesity [39] | |
Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) | Streptococcus, Prevotella and Veillonella [40] | Obesity, rhinitis, adenoid hypertrophy [41] | |
Parkinson’s Disease (PD) | Actinobacter [42,43] | OSA, Head injury, family history of trauma and depression, family history of PD [41,44] | |
Alzheimer’s Disease (AZ) | OSA, diet, the immune system, mitochondrial function, metal exposure, and infection [41,45] | ||
Essential Tremors (ET) | AAs, LAs [46] | Exposure to neurotoxic compounds such as β-carboline alkaloids and ethanol. Exposure to pesticide and lead. Tobacco exposure [47,48] | |
Atopic Dermatitis (AD) | AAs [49] | Viral and bacterial skin infections, neuropsychiatric diseases, family history, smoking, allergy, maternal asthma, and dogs [50] | |
Psoriasis | CAs, Eastern African [51,52] | Stress, diabetes mellitus, obesity, smoking, air pollution arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, alcohol, drugs, cardiovascular disease, infection, sun exposure, hypertension [53,54] |
Disease | Varying Factor | Higher Prevalence | Lower Prevalence |
---|---|---|---|
Adult- Onset Asthma | Citizenship | Turkish, Moroccan and South-Asian Surinamese [99] | Dutch, Ghanaian and African Surinamese origin groups [99] |
Allergies (asthma, hay fever, atopic eczema, self-reported rhinitis and atopic sensitization,) | Citizenship | Finland [100] | Russia (High Actinobacter) [100] |
sinonasal carcinomas & paranasal sinus squamous cell carcinomas | Ethnicity | AAs [101,102] | CAs [101,102] |
Endoscopic Sinus Surgery | Ethnicity, Stage at presentation | AAs, LAs [104] | Cas [104] |
Allergies | Amount of Exposure to Environment | Long Term Western Migrants (S. aureus and S. pneumoniae) [105] | Recent Western Migrants [105] |
Asthma | Ethnicity, Genetics | PR LAs [106] |
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Peace, O.; Rachakonda, K.; Kress, M.; Villalta, F.; Rachakonda, G. Respiratory and Neurological Disease across Different Ethnic Groups Is Influenced by the Microbiome. Microorganisms 2021, 9, 1965. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9091965
Peace O, Rachakonda K, Kress M, Villalta F, Rachakonda G. Respiratory and Neurological Disease across Different Ethnic Groups Is Influenced by the Microbiome. Microorganisms. 2021; 9(9):1965. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9091965
Chicago/Turabian StylePeace, Odiase, Kartik Rachakonda, Miller Kress, Fernando Villalta, and Girish Rachakonda. 2021. "Respiratory and Neurological Disease across Different Ethnic Groups Is Influenced by the Microbiome" Microorganisms 9, no. 9: 1965. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9091965