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Review

Current Evidence for Corynebacterium on the Ocular Surface

by
Takanori Aoki
,
Koji Kitazawa
*,
Hideto Deguchi
and
Chie Sotozono
Department of Ophthalmology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-0841, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Microorganisms 2021, 9(2), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9020254
Submission received: 27 December 2020 / Revised: 18 January 2021 / Accepted: 22 January 2021 / Published: 27 January 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetics and Physiology of Corynebacteria)
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Abstract

:
Corynebacterium species are commonly found in the conjunctiva of healthy adults and are recognized as non-pathogenic bacteria. In recent years, however, Corynebacterium species have been reported to be potentially pathogenic in various tissues. We investigated Corynebacterium species on the ocular surface and reviewed various species of Corynebacterium in terms of their antimicrobial susceptibility and the underlying molecular resistance mechanisms. We identified a risk for Corynebacterium-related ocular infections in patients with poor immunity, such as patients with diabetes or long-term users of topical steroids, and in those with corneal epithelial damage due to trauma, contact lens wear, lagophthalmos, and trichiasis. The predominant strain in the conjunctiva was C. macginleyi, and the species associated with keratitis and conjunctivitis were C. macginleyi, C. propinquum, C. mastitidis, C. pseudodiphtheriticum, C. accolens, C. striatum, C. xerosis, and C. bovis. Overall, Corynebacterium species present on the ocular surface were resistant to quinolones, whereas those in the nasal cavity were more susceptible. The prevalence of fluoroquinolone-resistant Corynebacterium has not changed in the past 10 years; however, Corynebacterium species remain susceptible to third-generation cephems. In conclusion, the use of third-generation cephems should be a reasonable and pragmatic approach for treatment of ocular infections caused by Corynebacterium species.

1. Introduction

Corynebacterium species are frequent constituents of the normal bacterial flora of the conjunctival sac and are common as well on human skin and mucous membranes and in the intestines [1,2]. One important species, Corynebacterium diphtheri, is the pathogenic bacterium that causes diphtheria, an upper respiratory infection generally characterized by sore throat and high temperature. In severe diphtheria cases, respiratory obstruction due to the inflammation of the tonsils, oropharynx, and pharynx can lead to death as the worst-case scenario. However, in general, Corynebacterium species seem to have low pathogenicity; therefore, the isolation of Corynebacterium species from infected tissue has been considered to arise as a result of mishandling or contamination [3,4].
Corynebacterium species can be found commonly on the ocular surface, in conjunction with other indigenous bacteria, such as Staphylococcus epidermidis and Propionibacterium acnes [1,5]. These various commensal bacteria aid in preventing ocular surface from invasion by foreign organisms [6]. However, in immunocompromised patients, many recent reports have demonstrated that Corynebacterium species can be potentially pathogenic when present on the ocular surface [7,8,9,10], as this infection has been associated with cases of endocarditis of the aortic and mitral valves [11], granulomatous mastitis [12], and pelvic osteomyelitis [13]. Many reports have been based on the case series [7,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21]. Therefore, the frequency of occurrence of various Corynebacterium species on the ocular surface compared to other organs is not well characterized, and the mechanism by which Corynebacterium species function as pathogenic organisms is also unclear. Moreover, the antimicrobial susceptibility pattern in Corynebacterium species, as with other bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus, has been changing in recent years [22]. Consequently, a full understanding of the pathogenicity of Corynebacterium species awaits a systematic review of the various ocular infection cases possibly caused by Corynebacterium species.
The purpose of the present review is to investigate the Corynebacterium species occurring on the ocular surface and to review the antimicrobial susceptibility of these species from the perspective of the underlying molecular resistance mechanism.

2. Corynebacterium Species

The genus Corynebacterium consists of 137 species, and 10 of these have been isolated from corneal infections (Table 1). Corynebacterium species are commonly found in the conjunctiva of healthy adults and have been recognized as non-pathogenic commensal bacteria on the ocular surface [7,8]. One study of 990 patients prior to cataract surgery revealed positive culture results for Corynebacterium species in the conjunctival sac in 46.4% (460/990), which was much higher than the results for methicillin-sensitive coagulase-negative staphylococci (MS-CNS), at 22.5% (223/990), or methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA), at 4.4% (44/990) [5].
Hoshi and associates evaluated 183 strains of Corynebacterium species in patients during their preoperative examinations prior to cataract surgery. Positive culture results revealed that C. macginleyi was the predominant strain (84%) in the conjunctiva, followed by C. accolens at 7%, C. propinquum at 3%, C. amycolatum at 2%, C. jeikeium at 2%, and C. mastitidis at 2% [23]. The presence of Corynebacterium species occurs in a tissue-specific manner; for instance, C. macginleyi is a dominant strain in the conjunctiva and was first described by Riegel and associates as a strain isolated from eye samples [24]. By contrast, C. accolens and C. propinquum are two major species in the nasal cavity, at 44% and 31%, respectively, whereas C. macginleyi accounts for only 3% of the isolates from nasal samples [23].
Corynebacterium species is thought to be a possible pathogen responsible for keratitis in some cases, such as biofilm formation in immunosuppressed persons. In fact, cases of Corynebacterium-associated ocular infection, including conjunctivitis, bacteria keratitis, glaucoma bleb-related infections, and endophthalmitis, have been reported [7,8,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,25,26,27,28,29,30,31], have led to suspicion of involvement of Corynebacterium species in immunocompromised cases. Many case reports have implicated C. macginleyi as a main strain that causes conjunctivitis and bacteria keratitis [7,8,17,18,19,20,28,32].
In this review, we have listed the cases of ocular surface infection, including keratitis, corneal ulcer, and conjunctivitis, caused by Corynebacterium species (Table 1). The identified species were C. macginleyi (n = 24), C. propinquum (n = 2), C. pseudodiphtheriticum (n = 2), C. striatum (n = 2), C. xerosis (n = 1), and C. mastitidis (n = 1) [7,8,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,25,26,27]. Most of the infected patients had risk factors, such as diabetes or long-term use of steroid treatments after corneal transplantation [14,16,19,25] that led to poor immunity, or they had experienced corneal epithelial damage due to trauma [20], contact lens wear [7,16,26,27], lagophthalmos, or trichiasis [21]. Interestingly, mild infectious cases, like conjunctivitis, were more often observed in cases of C. macginleyi infection, whereas other Corynebacterium strains seem to cause more severe infectious diseases [14,16,21]. In fact, many severe keratitis cases reported from India were caused by strains identified as C. propinquum (n = 3), C. pseudodiphtheriticum (n = 1), C. striatum (n = 1), and C. bovis (n = 1) [9], suggesting that the causative agents could be either indigenous bacteria or foreign strains.

2.1. C. macginleyi

Riegel and associates reported lipophilic coryneform bacteria from eye specimens that they named C. macginleyi [24]. The presence of this species in the normal conjunctiva is not surprising because the meibomian glands produce meibum, an oily substance [24]. In fact, C. macginleyi is the most commonly isolated strain in the conjunctiva, and it is also recognized as the most common causative agent of opportunistic ocular infections.
The rDNA sequence of C. macginleyi shows a 98.7% similarity to that of C. accolens. Eguchi and associates showed that C. macginleyi was highly resistant to fluoroquinolones, with 12 of 16 tested isolates showing resistance. They attributed this resistance to overuse of fluoroquinolones eye drops in the ophthalmology field. C. macginleyi is an opportunistic pathogen that causes several ocular infections, including conjunctivitis [7,8,18], corneal keratitis [17,19], glaucoma bleb-related infections [30,31], and endophthalmitis [10,29]. C. macginleyi can also cause non-ocular infections, such as bladder catheter infections [33], intravenous catheter infections [34,35], and septicemia [36].

2.2. C. accolens

C. accolens (previously CDC group G-1) was first described from human clinical specimens, such as wound drainage, endocervix samples, sputum, and throat swab specimens collected over a 30-year period [3,37]. Hoshi and associates revealed that C. accolens was the second most frequent bacterial species, accounting for 7% of the bacteria in the conjunctiva and 44% in the nasal cavity in the healthy volunteers [23]. One case with bacterial conjunctivitis had C. accolens identified in the conjunctival sac [8]. However, evidence confirming the Corynebacterium isolates as the causative agents of the infection was not provided.

2.3. C. propinquum

C. propinquum was proposed as the CDC coryneform ANF-3 bacterium by Riegel and associates [38]. Two cases of keratitis caused by C. propinquum have been reported. One case was a 94-year-old woman who had undergone corneal transplantation for Fuchs corneal dystrophy, and she had used long-term 0.1% fluorometholone eye drops as prophylaxis against graft rejection. Corneal infection had occurred at the loosened suture region of the graft. After medication with 5% cefazolin eye drops and 1% gentamicin eye drop hourly and 0.1% fluorometholone eye drops twice daily, her visual acuity improved to 20/160 [14]. Another case was a 44-year-old woman with a persistent corneal epithelial defect. She had a past history of type 1 diabetes, proliferative diabetic retinopathy, and hemodialysis due to diabetic nephropathy. The ocular infection was attributed to a persistent corneal epithelial defect due to neurotrophic keratopathy, possibly caused by poor diabetes control. The patient was treated with gatifloxacin and cefmenoxime eye drops six times daily and complete eye closure with an eye patch to facilitate reepithelialization. Her final visual acuity recovered to 0.02 (20/1000) [16].
C. propinquum is typically commensal on the human nasopharynx and skin [23,39]. C. propinquum has been implicated in various opportunistic infections, such as pulmonary infection [40] and infective endocarditis [41]. The majority of C. propinquum strains are constitutively resistant to macrolide drugs [23,42], and both of the above cases were resistant to erythromycin [23].

2.4. C. amycolatum

C. amycolatum is a non-lipophilic and fermentative Corynebacterium species, first described by Collins and associates from swabs of the skin of healthy people [43]. One case report has appeared of orbital implant infection after eye evisceration caused by C. amycolatum [44], but no reports of conjunctivitis or keratitis have been published. C. amycolatum is a normal inhabitant of skin and mucous membranes and promotes the epidermal growth factor receptor-dependent induction of the antimicrobial protein RNase7. The relationship between C. amycolatum and RNase7 may control the growth of Corynebacterium species on human skin [45].

2.5. C. jeikeium

The species C. jeikeium was isolated from bacterial endocarditis following cardiac surgery [46]. C. jeikeium is part of the normal flora of the skin, especially in inpatients. Many studies have reported multi-resistance to antibiotics in C. jeikeium strains [47,48,49].

2.6. C. mastitidis, C. lowii, and C. oculi

C. mastitidis was first found in sheep with mastitis [50] and this species can stably colonize the ocular mucosa, where it provides a related beneficial local immunity [51]. Bernard and associates analyzed C. mastitidis recognized by Eguchi in Japan and Vandamm in Belgium and Switzerland [8,52], and described C. lowii and C. oculi as two new species, separate from C. mastitidis. C. mastitidis was detected in contact-related keratitis in Japan; however, unlike C. macginleyi, C. mastitidis was very sensitive to both levofloxacin and ciprofloxacin [27].

3. Laboratory Examinations

3.1. The Ocular Manifestations of Corynebacterium Species

Corynebacterium-associated conjunctivitis is characterized by variable symptoms, including hyperemia, foreign body sensation, discharge, and a burning sensation [8,18,28,32]. Bacterial keratitis caused by Corynebacterium species shows clinical features by slit lamp microscopy that range from mild cases with a small infiltration on the surface of cornea to severe cases with corneal ulcerations with round to oval shapes at the center of cornea, but the ocular infections show no distinctive findings [9,17,19,25,53,54]. This infection is more frequently found in patients undergoing immunosuppressive therapy after corneal transplantation. As shown in Table 1, age differences do not seem to affect the ocular infection by Corynebacterium species. Trauma, contact lens wear, and corneal damage due to trichiasis and severe dry eye can also exacerbate the ocular infection [7,15,20,21,26,27]. However, Corynebacterium species isolated as part of the normal flora in the conjunctival sac showed a significant association with age, male sex, and glaucoma eye drop use in a multivariate analysis [5], suggesting that clinical information would be helpful for an accurate diagnosis.
Figure 1 shows the findings for an 89-year-old man who had undergone corneal transplantation for lattice corneal dystrophy eight years previously. He had applied 0.1% fluorometholone eye drops twice daily for the prevention of allograft rejection, accompanied by moxifloxacin eye drops for post microbial keratitis as prophylaxis. At his regular visit, corneal infiltration was found at the suture site. A microbial examination identified Corynebacterium species that were resistant to levofloxacin, erythromycin, cefmenoxime, and fosfomycin and were susceptible to arbekacin, vancomycin, and chloramphenicol. The patient was treated with 0.3% chloramphenicol eye drops, 1% vancomycin ointment, and 1% cefmenoxime eye drops, and the keratitis was resolved.

3.2. Microscopy Examinations

Microscopy examinations of the discharge/fluid from the infected conjunctival sac and of corneal scrapings are helpful for identifying the causative bacteria. Corynebacterium species are gram-positive, rod-shaped, non-branching, non-motile, catalase positive, and oxidase negative bacteria. They grow in aerobic conditions, and Corynebacterium species are widely present in nature, in water, soil, and plants. The range in size from 0.3–0.8 μm in diameter and 1–8 μm in length. They look like the letters “I, N, T, V, W, or Y” at 1000× magnification, and show the apical growth typical of a bacillus, often exhibiting a club-shaped morphology at one or both ends. Corynebacterium species are commonly isolated as indigenous bacteria from the normal ocular flora as well as the mucosa and skin. However, as shown in Figure 2, Corynebacterium species are phagocytosed by polymorphonuclear leucocyte, indicating that they can have a potential impact on infection.

3.3. Culture Tests

Most Corynebacterium species can be isolated from a 5% sheep blood agar, and they often form staphylococcal-like colonies. The growth of lipophilic Corynebacterium species is enhanced by adding 0.1% Tween 80 to the medium, while blood agar under aerobic conditions helps the growth of non-lipophilic Corynebacterium species. C. macginleyi is a lipophilic Corynebacterium and requires lipid for growth. Clinical laboratories typically report these organisms as “Corynebacterium spp.” based on visualization and catalase reactions only, which could lead to misdiagnosis. When other commensal bacteria from the respiratory system material or urinary system material are present, identification of Corynebacterium species may not always be necessary, as they are unlikely to be the causative pathogens of an infection. Therefore, Corynebacterium should be detected in clinical samples from normally sterile sites. However, the normal bacterial flora on the ocular surface includes Corynebacterium species [1], suggesting that the identification of Corynebacterium species should be performed with clinical findings in cases when immunity is severely affected, as those patients could develop infections caused by Corynebacterium species.

3.4. Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing

Antimicrobial susceptibility testing is a method for determining possible drug resistance and for assuring the susceptibility to the drugs of choice for a particular bacterial species. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing should be performed for cases highly suspicious for Corynebacterium being a causative pathogen based on smear speculation or isolates from sterile materials. The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC values) of a drug for lipophilic or non-lipophilic Corynebacterium are typically determined using 5% lysed horse blood added to agar and adjusted with Ca and Mg with microfluid dilution. The bacteria are incubated for 24–48 h at 35 °C, with 48 h needed for lipophilic Corynebacterium species. Growth on control agar is compared to growth on the drug-containing agar to determine susceptibility or resistance. The disk diffusion method is a standardized technique for testing rapidly growing pathogens. However, many reports suggest some limitations to the use of the disc diffusion method [55,56], as some cases do not accurately display a visual resistance reaction.

4. The Susceptibility of Corynebacterium to Antibiotics

The susceptibility of Corynebacterium to drugs varies depending on the species, according to published reports [7,8,9,10,14,16,18,19,21,22,23,27,28,32,53,54,57,58,59,60]. In the ophthalmology field, large clinical cohorts of Corynebacterium on the ocular surface have not yet been sufficiently studied. Table 2 shows the previous clinical research where Corynebacterium species were identified with conjunctival swabs in cases with infectious ocular surface diseases or at the time of preoperative examination for cataract surgery. C. macginleyi accounted for a large proportion of the ocular infection [7,8,16,18,19,23,28]. In 1998, Funke and associates were the first to report C. macginleyi in 15 cases of conjunctivitis or corneal ulcer [7]. They also found that C. macginleyi was susceptible to penicillin and ceftriaxone as well as to ofloxacin or ciprofloxacin, which are quinolone antibiotics [7]. However, in recent years, many cases of resistance to quinolones have been reported for C. macginleyi. For example, Eguchi and associates reported that 20 cases with Corynebacterium strains identified on the ocular surface were susceptible to erythromycin at 45% or to levofloxacin or ciprofloxacin at 25%, whereas the susceptibility to cefmenoxime was 100% [32]. Another report for samples obtained from the conjunctival sac in patients prior to cataract surgery revealed that 51 isolates of C. macginleyi were highly susceptible to both penicillin and erythromycin, but showed low susceptibility to levofloxacin at 64% [23]. We previously also reported one case with infectious keratitis following phototherapeutic keratectomy, caused by a fluoroquinolone-resistant Corynebacterium species [53]. We also examined the Corynebacterium species isolated from an ocular infection that included the conjunctiva and found that 54% of the Corynebacterium species were resistant to levofloxacin [22]. Many levofloxacin-resistant Corynebacterium strains have been reported in Japan, suggesting the possibility of overuse of quinolones eye drops in Japan. However, as shown in Table 2, Corynebacterium species reported in India have also revealed low susceptibility to ciprofloxacin, at 50–62% [9,59]. Other reports from western countries, including Australia, the USA, Ireland, Germany, Canada, and Italy, have shown a higher susceptibility to fluoroquinolone in Corynebacterium species [14,15,17,18,20,28,57,60], suggesting that strains of Corynebacterium can be responsible for susceptibility differences, rather than the use of topical antibiotics. Antimicrobial susceptibility may also be affected by strain types. C. propinquum has a known resistance to macrolides based on studies in non-ocular tissues [23,42]. Case reports from Australia and Japan have also indicated high resistance to erythromycin [14,16]. Hoshi and associates have reported that the susceptibility to erythromycin in C. propinquum isolated from the conjunctiva and nose was 74%, while C. macginleyi was highly susceptible [23]. In the clinical setting, the strain of Corynebacterium may not be identified in most cases, but Corynebacterium overall show mild to high resistance to quinolone antibiotics, whereas Corynebacterium on the ocular surface are susceptible to third-generation cephems. Therefore, the possibility of strain-dependent antimicrobial susceptibility should be kept in mind.
We previously examined the trend of resistance to antibiotics in ocular infections by Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci, and Corynebacterium. The prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci (MR-CNS) has decreased from 52% to 22% and from 47% to 25%, respectively, over a 10-year period, whereas 54% of the Corynebacterium species still remain resistant to levofloxacin, and the prevalence of resistant Corynebacterium species has not changed [22]. Levofloxacin-resistant Corynebacterium species are highly resistant (28%) to erythromycin, as well as to levofloxacin, while they are fully susceptible to cefmenoxime (100%) [22]. We also investigated 264 cases diagnosed as ocular surface infection at the Baptist Eye Institute in Kyoto, Japan, between April 2014 and March 2016, using bacterial cultures from the conjunctival sac and the nasal cavity. We isolated 77 strains of Corynebacterium from the conjunctival sac, and 176 strains were detected in the nasal cavity. The susceptibility to erythromycin was 40% and to levofloxacin was 45%, whereas cefmenoxime sensitivity was 96% (Table 3), in agreement with the findings of Eguchi and associates [32]. Conversely, the susceptibilities to erythromycin, levofloxacin, and cefmenoxime in the Corynebacterium species from the nasal cavity were 69%, 74%, and 94%, respectively. One possible explanation for this difference in susceptibility between strains from the conjunctival sac and the nasal cavity is that the conjunctival sac was more exposed to antibiotics, such as levofloxacin, compared to the nasal cavity.
Eguchi and associates performed multilocus sequence typing (MLST) to classify the lineage of C. macginleyi, and they found that 13 of 16 isolates were clustered into the same group. In addition, all the isolates were resistant to fluoroquinolone, indicating that fluoroquinolone resistance was widely prevalent in the C. macginleyi species on the ocular surface. However, whether the Corynebacterium isolates recovered from specimens were truly the causative agents of the infection is not clear. Nevertheless, these findings suggest that overuse of antibiotics can affect the prevalence of drug-resistant bacteria.
The susceptibility of Corynebacterium species to fluoroquinolones varies among different countries. A low susceptibility to fluoroquinolones has been reported in Japan, while reports in Switzerland and Canada show high susceptibility to these drugs [7,18]. This may reflect the fact that fluoroquinolones are often the first choice for the treatment of conjunctivitis in Japan. Therefore, bacteria resistant to fluoroquinolones are more likely to be reported, whereas the susceptibility to third-generation cephems still remains at a high level (Table 1). Multidrug-resistant Corynebacterium are becoming a larger issue in ophthalmology [61,62], so third-generation antibiotics would be recommended as the first choice when a Corynebacterium infection is suspected.
The difference in drug susceptibility in different tissues may be attributed to the types of Corynebacterium present. In systemic studies, C. striatum is the most frequent Corynebacterium identified from blood and is the most common cause of bacteremia. C. striatum is frequently resistant to penicillin, cephems, and fluoroquinolone and is often treated with vancomycin. However, C. striatum-related keratitis, which was first reported in 1989 and 1991 [25,26], is highly susceptible to penicillin. Neemuchwala and associates evaluated the antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of 1970 strains of Corynebacterium identified between 2011 and 2016, and they found that 931 (47%) strains of C. striatum, 190 (10%) strains of C. amycolatum, and 216 strains (11%) of C. peudodiphtheritium/C. propinquum showed low susceptibility to penicillin (15%), followed by erythromycin (15%), and ciprofloxacin (27%) [42], suggesting that these strains are less sensitive to fluoroquinolones as well. Consequently, fluoroquinolone-resistant Corynebacterium should be considered in other fields.

5. Genetic Mutations and Drug Resistance

The antimicrobial susceptibility to drug in bacteria has been changing over time, and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is now an issue everywhere in the world [63]. The World Health Assembly set up a global action plan on AMR in 2015 to deal with the growing problem of resistance to antibiotics. Drug-resistance in pathogens arise though several biochemical mechanisms and is acquired by genetic mutations of the active points of the gene. Gene mutations on the pathogen side render the drug ineffective and prevents the pathogen from being a target of the drug. This mechanism is commonly found in microorganisms such as MRSA. Another drug resistance mechanism in bacteria is chemical modification or breakdown or inactivation of the target drug by enzymes. For instance, penicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (other than MRSA) exhibits drug resistance by producing penicillinase and β-lactamase enzymes that break down penicillin. Excretion of the drug from the bacterial cells can also lead to resistance to the drug. For example, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa have the RND-type multidrug efflux pumps that can accelerate pumping of drugs out through the AcrAB-TolC system in E.coli or the MexAB-OprM and MexXY-OprM systems in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, thereby reducing the drug concentration in the cells [64,65,66].
Corynebacterium species can acquire drug resistance by genetic mutations of the drug target site. As shown in Table 2, Corynebacterium species have low susceptibility to quinolones. Bacteria generally become resistant to quinolones due to an overexpression of efflux pump gene(s) and some gene mutations of the target molecules [67]. The quinolones are broad-spectrum antibiotics with a 4-quinolone skeleton. The quinolones interfere with bacterial growth by inhibiting DNA gyrase (gyrA) and topoisomerase IV (purC) [68], which are essential bacterial type II topoisomerase enzymes that mediate the winding and unwinding of the DNA and DNA double helix breakage during DNA replication. The quinolones therefore stop DNA replication in the bacteria, resulting in cell death. Corynebacterium species lack topoisomerase IV, so DNA gyrase plays a major role in the resistance to quinolones in Corynebacterium species [69]. In many quinolone-resistant bacteria, point mutations occur in the quinolone resistance determining region (QRDR) that encodes DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV. These mutations are attributed to the acquisition of fluoroquinolone resistance [67,70], and 83(Ser) and 87(Asp) are the two most commonly mutated amino acids in quinolone-resistant mutants [71].
For Corynebacterium species, a single amino acid mutation in DNA gyrase has occurred most commonly at the QRDRs of gyrA (residues at amino acid positions 83 and 87 to 91) [8,72,73,74]. The loci of the mutations depend on the species. Eguchi and associates reported that point mutations at amino acid positions 83(Ser) and 87(Asp) of the QRDRs were strongly associated with quinolone resistance in C. macginleyi [8]. In C. striatum, point mutations occur at amino acid positions 87(Ser) and 91(Ala), and the double mutations show an increase in resistance to moxifloxacin [72,73]. For C. jeikeium and C. urealyticum, as well as in other Corynebacterium species, the important amino acid changes occur at positions 87 and 91. First, a point mutation at either amino acid position 83(Ser) and 87(Asp) occurs, leading to a change in the subsequent intrinsic sensitivity to the antibiotics [74], which eventually exacerbates to susceptibility to antibiotics.
Recently, many reports have shown the presence of multidrug-resistant Corynebacterium species in systemic diseases, such as sepsis, endocarditis, and granulomatous mastitis [48,75,76,77,78]. At present, six cases of ocular surface infections caused by multi-drug resistant Corynebacterium species have been reported [61,62]. All these cases occurred in patients with poorly controlled diabetes, long-term steroid treatment, bullous keratopathy, or Stevens-Johnson syndrome or who used punctal plugs due to severe dry eye disease. The Corynebacterium species were not identified; however, the following genes coding for antibiotic resistance, including quinolones, were found: ermX (macrolides and lincosamides), aphA (aminoglycosides), and cmx (chloramphenicol) [47,79,80]. The overuse of antibiotics can drive spontaneous mutation in Corynebacterium species [72,73], thereby causing a prevalence of multidrug-resistant Corynebacterium species.
Fourth generation quinolone eye drops are now a common choice for prophylactic administration in patients undergoing intraocular surgery [81]. New ophthalmic eye drops containing hexamidine diisethionate have also been developed for the treatment of keratitis, conjunctivitis, and blepharitis [82,83]. Interestingly, the long-term use of glaucoma eye drops has also been reported to change the commensal bacteria flora on the ocular surface [84], although this effect may be a consequence of the addition of benzalkonium chloride (BAC) preservative to the glaucoma eye drops. As antimicrobial treatments develop, following the changes in the commensal bacterial flora in the ocular surface will also be necessary.

6. Conclusions

This review confirms that Corynebacterium species can work as a causative pathogen in immunocompromised patients. Generally, Corynebacterium species are commensal bacteria, and they may be dismissed as a nonpathogenic organism in most cases. However, a suspicion of Corynebacterium infection following microscopy examination with Gram staining confirmed that Corynebacterium species were phagocytosed by polymorphonuclear leucocytes. In urgent cases, empirical therapy with third-generation cephems, such as cefmenoxime, is a reasonable and pragmatic approach for immediate treatment of the infection. Regardless, switching to a definitive therapy based on the subsequent results of antimicrobial susceptibility testing is critical later on. In fact, quinolone-resistant and multidrug-resistant Corynebacterium species have been reported, so the use of clinically and microbiologically appropriate drugs is essential to prevent these bacteria from becoming drug resistant.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.K.; investigation, T.A., K.K., H.D.; writing—original draft preparation, T.A., K.K., H.D.; writing—review and editing, K.K.; supervision, C.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine (#ERB-C-1006, 11 March 2016).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Written informed consent has been obtained from the patients to publish this paper.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We thank Taisuke Imura for kindly support for the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Microorganisms 09 00254 g001 550
Figure 1. Slit lamp photograph. An 89-year-old man who underwent a penetrating keratoplasty at his age of 81. The corneal infiltration was observed around the graft suture, accompanied with moderate hyperemia.
Figure 1. Slit lamp photograph. An 89-year-old man who underwent a penetrating keratoplasty at his age of 81. The corneal infiltration was observed around the graft suture, accompanied with moderate hyperemia.
Microorganisms 09 00254 g001
Microorganisms 09 00254 g002 550
Figure 2. Gram staining. The Gram stain procedure revealed that gram-positive rod-shaped bacteria were phagocytosed by polymorphonuclear leucocyte.
Figure 2. Gram staining. The Gram stain procedure revealed that gram-positive rod-shaped bacteria were phagocytosed by polymorphonuclear leucocyte.
Microorganisms 09 00254 g002
Table
Table 1. Representative cases with ocular surface infection caused by Corynebacterium species.
Table 1. Representative cases with ocular surface infection caused by Corynebacterium species.
Authors
(Ref. Number)		YearCountryAgeDiseaseType of StrainsLipophilic or Non-Lipophilic Past HistoryAntibiotic Susceptibilities of Corynebacterium Species
(Minimum Inhibitory Concentration; (μg/mL))
PCsEMCEPsLVFXCPFXGM/TOBVCMCP
Badenoch PR et al. [14]2016Australia94Suture-related keratitisC. propinquumNon-lipophilicDiabetes, Corneal transplantation0.02>256 (CLDM)--0.38-0.5-
Duignan ES et al. [15]2016Ireland52KeratitisC. pseudodiphtheriticumNon-lipophilicCorneal inlay ---S (MFLX)---S
Todokoro D et al. [16]2015Japan44Contact-related keratitisC. propinquumNon-lipophilicContact lens wear, Proliferative diabetic retinopathy->2560.125120.51-
Ruoff KL et al. [17]2010USA84KeratitisC. macginleyiLipophilicFuchs’ endothelial dystrophy0.016---0.0320.0640.5-
Alsuwaidi AR et al. [18]2010Canada54ConjunctivitisC. macginleyiLipophilicHealth care workerSRSSSSSS
Inata K et al. [27]2009Japan23Contact-related keratitisC. mastidisLipophilicContact lens wear-<0.0160.1250.0640.125<0.0640.54
Eguchi et al. [8]2008Japan58ConjunctivitisC. macginleyiLipophilic---->32>32---
Eguchi et al. [8]2008Japan72ConjunctivitisC. macginleyiLipophilic---->32>32---
Eguchi et al. [8]2008Japan58ConjunctivitisC. macginleyiLipophilic---->32>32---
Eguchi et al. [8]2008Japan78ConjunctivitisC. macginleyiLipophilic---->32>32---
Suzuki T et al. [19]2007Japan74Suture-related keratitisC. macginleyiLipophilicCorneal transplantation1620.5>128128<0.130.5-
Suzuki T et al. [19]2007Japan49Suture-related keratitisC. macginleyiLipophilicCorneal transplantation16<0.130.25648<0.130.5-
Giammanco G. M et al. [20]2002Italy65Corneal ulcersC. macginleyiLipophilicTraumaSSS-S (ENX)SSS
Li A et al. [21]2000China86KeratitisC. pseudodiphtheriticumNon-lipophilicPneumonia, Trichiasis, LagophthalmosR-R *---SR
Heidemann DG et al. [25]1991USA80KeratitisC. striatumNon-lipophilicProliferative diabetic retinopathySSS *---S-
Rubinfeld RS et al. [26]1989USA81KeratitisC. striatumNon-lipophilicContact lens wear, AphakiaSSS *---S-
Rubinfeld RS et al. [26]1989USA11Suture related keratitisC. xerosisNon-lipophilicPost corneal laceration -SS *--SSS
Funke et al. [7]1998Switzerland47 aCorneal ulcer (n = 3), Conjunctivitis (n = 12)C. macginleyiLipophilicContact lens wear, Eyelid closure problems<0.01–0.125 b<0.03–>64 b0.5–16 b0.125–1 (Ofloxacin)b0.06–0.125 b<0.06–0.5 b0.5–1 b2–4 b
S: Sensitive, R: Resistant, *: First-generation cephalosporins, M: Male, F: Female, a: Average age, b: Range of antibiotic susceptibility in 15 patients, PCs: penicillins, EM: Erythromycin, CEPs: Cepharosporins, LVFX: Levofloxacin, CPFX: Ciprofloxacin, GM: Gentamicin, TOB: Tobramycin, VCM: Vancomycin, CP: Chloramphenicol, MFLX: Moxifloxacin, ENX: Enoxacin, CLDM: Clindamycin.
Table
Table 2. Antibiotic susceptibilities of Corynebacterium species in clinical research.
Table 2. Antibiotic susceptibilities of Corynebacterium species in clinical research.
Authors
(Ref. Number)		YearCountrySamplesNo. of Strains Type of Strains% of Susceptibilities to Antibiotics in Corynebacterium Species
PCsEMCEPsLVFXCPFXGMVCMCP
Hoshi et al. [23]2020Japanconjunctiva (n = 46), nose (n = 4)50 -100 100 -64 -98 (TOB)--
Deguchi et al. [22]2018Japanconjunctiva77 --28 100 0 --100 88
Watson et al. [60]2016Australiacornea8---60-86-10075
Das et al. [9]2015Indiacornea22C. propinquum (n = 3), C. pseudodiphtheriticum (n = 1), C. striatum (n = 1), C. bovis (n = 1)--80-50-8956
Eguchi et al. [32]2013Japanocular surface20 --45 100 25 25 95 100 55
Bharathi et al. [59]2010Indiaocular surface, vitreous humor207---91-62499049
Eguchi et al. [8]2008Japanocular surface21 C. macginleyi (n = 16), C. mastitidis (n = 4), C. accolens (n = 1)---4343---
Cameron et al. [57]2006Australiacornea8C. macginleyi (n = 4)--88-10075-88
Joussen et al. [28]2000Germanyconjunctiva10 C. macginleyi (n = 10)100 70 -80 -100 -67
PCs: penecillins, EM: Erythromycin, CEPs: Cepharosporins, LVFX: Levofloxacin, CPFX: Ciprofloxacin, GM: Gentamicin, TOB: Tobramycin, VCM: Vancomycin, CP: Chloramphenicol, OFLX: Ofloxacin.
Table
Table 3. Antibiotic susceptibilities of Corynebacterium species from the conjunctiva and nose.
Table 3. Antibiotic susceptibilities of Corynebacterium species from the conjunctiva and nose.
SamplesNo. of Strains% of Susceptibilities to Antibiotics in Corynebacterium Species
EMCMXLVFXABKFOMVCMCP
Conjunctiva7740964595110073
Nose 17669947494310072
Total25340956594310072
EM: Erythromycin, CMX: Cefmenoxime, LVFX: Levofloxacin, ABK: Arbekacin, FOM: Fosfomycin, VCM: Vancomycin, CP: Chloramphenicol.
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Aoki, T.; Kitazawa, K.; Deguchi, H.; Sotozono, C. Current Evidence for Corynebacterium on the Ocular Surface. Microorganisms 2021, 9, 254. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9020254

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Aoki T, Kitazawa K, Deguchi H, Sotozono C. Current Evidence for Corynebacterium on the Ocular Surface. Microorganisms. 2021; 9(2):254. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9020254

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Aoki, Takanori, Koji Kitazawa, Hideto Deguchi, and Chie Sotozono. 2021. "Current Evidence for Corynebacterium on the Ocular Surface" Microorganisms 9, no. 2: 254. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9020254

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