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Review

Immunological Determinants of Oncogenic Virus-Driven Cancers in Africa: Mechanisms, Co-Infections and Public Health Challenges

by
Victor Ayodele Aliyu
1,*,
Olalekan Chris Akinsulie
2,
Babatunde Ibrahim Olowu
2,
Ibrahim Idris
3,
Favour Akinfemi Ajibade
4,
Pius I. Babawale
5,
Oluwawemimo Adebowale
6,
Charles Egede Ugwu
7,
Chizaram Blessing Ukauwa
8,
Onyedikachi Emmanuel Itumo
9,
Peter Arinze Oge
10,
Sammuel Shahzad
2,
Chizobam Lilian Chukwu
11,
Toyin Florence Ayandokun
12,
Joy Taiye Aliyu
13,
Peace Kehinde Aliyu
13,
Jesuferanmi Mary Akinsulie
14,
Muhammad Ipoola Adeyemi
15 and
Olamilekan Gabriel Banwo
16
1
School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
2
Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
3
School of Veterinary Medicine, Texas Tech University, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA
4
Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, The Robert Larner, M.D. College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
5
Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Barton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
6
Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, Abeokuta 110124, Ogun State, Nigeria
7
Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
8
Department of Animal Health and Production, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Abuja, FCT, Abuja 900102, Nigeria
9
Department of Public Health, Middlesex University London, London NW4 4BT, UK
10
Department of Human Anatomy, University of Cross Rivers State, Yala 550107, Cross Rivers State, Nigeria
11
Department of Medical Microbiology, Imo State University, Owerri 460222, Imo State, Nigeria
12
Department of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
13
Department of Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Clinical Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 220282, Osun State, Nigeria
14
School of Health Sciences and Society, University of Suffolk, Ipswich IP3 0AQ, UK
15
Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Natural Science and Technology, University of Bergen, 5020 Bergen, Norway
16
Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200132, Oyo State, Nigeria
 
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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Pathogens 2026, 15(8), 800; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15080800
Submission received: 13 June 2026 / Revised: 16 July 2026 / Accepted: 24 July 2026 / Published: 28 July 2026
(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Oncogenic viruses contribute to approximately 20% of human cancers globally, with their impact falling disproportionately on populations in Sub-Saharan Africa. In this region, cervical cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, endemic Burkitt lymphoma, and Kaposi sarcoma represent major causes of cancer-related morbidity and mortality, driven by persistent infection with human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B and C viruses (HBV/HCV), Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), and human T-lymphotropic virus-1 (HTLV-1). This review synthesizes current insights into the immunological mechanisms that underpin viral carcinogenesis in Africa, emphasizing how defective viral clearance, chronic immune activation, and immune evasion arise from the convergence of region-specific co-infections, host genetic diversity, and environmental exposures. We examine the mechanistic roles of HIV-associated CD4+ T cell depletion, malaria-induced perturbation of antiviral T cell immunity, helminth-driven T helper 2 polarization, and tuberculosis-associated inflammatory signaling in promoting viral persistence and malignant transformation. In addition, the influence of the extensive diversity of African human leukocyte antigens (HLA) and cytokine gene polymorphisms on antiviral immune responses and cancer susceptibility was discussed. We also assessed how virus-associated tumors establish profoundly immunosuppressive microenvironments characterized by impaired antigen presentation and the dominance
Keywords: viral oncogenesis; human papillomavirus (HPV); hepatitis B virus (HBV); Epstein–Barr virus (EBV); sub-Saharan Africa viral oncogenesis; human papillomavirus (HPV); hepatitis B virus (HBV); Epstein–Barr virus (EBV); sub-Saharan Africa

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MDPI and ACS Style

Aliyu, V.A.; Akinsulie, O.C.; Olowu, B.I.; Idris, I.; Ajibade, F.A.; Babawale, P.I.; Adebowale, O.; Ugwu, C.E.; Ukauwa, C.B.; Itumo, O.E.; et al. Immunological Determinants of Oncogenic Virus-Driven Cancers in Africa: Mechanisms, Co-Infections and Public Health Challenges. Pathogens 2026, 15, 800. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15080800

AMA Style

Aliyu VA, Akinsulie OC, Olowu BI, Idris I, Ajibade FA, Babawale PI, Adebowale O, Ugwu CE, Ukauwa CB, Itumo OE, et al. Immunological Determinants of Oncogenic Virus-Driven Cancers in Africa: Mechanisms, Co-Infections and Public Health Challenges. Pathogens. 2026; 15(8):800. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15080800

Chicago/Turabian Style

Aliyu, Victor Ayodele, Olalekan Chris Akinsulie, Babatunde Ibrahim Olowu, Ibrahim Idris, Favour Akinfemi Ajibade, Pius I. Babawale, Oluwawemimo Adebowale, Charles Egede Ugwu, Chizaram Blessing Ukauwa, Onyedikachi Emmanuel Itumo, and et al. 2026. "Immunological Determinants of Oncogenic Virus-Driven Cancers in Africa: Mechanisms, Co-Infections and Public Health Challenges" Pathogens 15, no. 8: 800. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15080800

APA Style

Aliyu, V. A., Akinsulie, O. C., Olowu, B. I., Idris, I., Ajibade, F. A., Babawale, P. I., Adebowale, O., Ugwu, C. E., Ukauwa, C. B., Itumo, O. E., Oge, P. A., Shahzad, S., Chukwu, C. L., Ayandokun, T. F., Aliyu, J. T., Aliyu, P. K., Akinsulie, J. M., Adeyemi, M. I., & Banwo, O. G. (2026). Immunological Determinants of Oncogenic Virus-Driven Cancers in Africa: Mechanisms, Co-Infections and Public Health Challenges. Pathogens, 15(8), 800. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15080800

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