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Volume 15
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10.3390/pathogens15020161
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Article

Detection of Enteroviruses on Environmental Surfaces in Daycare Centers Using Droplet Digital PCR (ddPCR) and Its Public Health Implications

by
Kyung-Seon Kim
1,
Hye-Jin Jang
1,
Seo-Youn Koo
1,
Jeong-Hyun Lee
2,
In-Hae Choi
1,
Chae-Hyeon Sim
1,
Ni-Na Yoo
1,
Jin-Gyun Eom
1,
Kyoung-Yong Jung
1,
Eun-Ok Bang
1,* and
Yoon-Seok Chung
2,*
1
Division of Infectious Disease Research, Health and Environment Research Institute of Sejong, Sejong 30015, Republic of Korea
2
Division of High-Risk Pathogens, Bureau of Infectious Disease Diagnosis Control, Republic of Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency (KDCA), Cheongju 28159, Republic of Korea
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Pathogens 2026, 15(2), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15020161
Submission received: 16 December 2025 / Revised: 22 January 2026 / Accepted: 31 January 2026 / Published: 2 February 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genomics and Epidemiology of Emerging Viruses)
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Abstract

Enteroviruses (EVs) are major pathogens transmitted via direct and indirect contact, with children being particularly susceptible. As EVs persist on surfaces, environmental hygiene is critical in communal environments. We investigated EVs presence on environmental surfaces in daycare centers from April to July 2024. Environmental samples (300) were collected from floors, toys, and desks. Viral RNA was extracted and analyzed using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (real-time RT-PCR) and ddPCR to detect pan-Enterovirus (pan-EVs) and Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68). EVs were detected in 45.3% of the samples. The detection rate refers to the combined results, including both ddPCR and real-time PCR. Specifically, pan-EVs were found in 88 samples (1.12–505 copies/20 μL) and EV-D68 in 104 samples (1.12–309 copies/20 μL). Floors (31%) were the most contaminated surfaces. Monthly analysis showed a gradual decrease in detection rates from 88.6% in April to 18.5% in July, appearing to align with the implementation of enhanced hygiene measures. However, this trend may also reflect multifaceted factors, including natural viral reduction, exclusion of symptomatic children, and increased hygiene awareness. Notably ddPCR (83.0%) exhibited nearly twice the detection rate of real-time RT-PCR (42.5%), identifying low-level viral persistence. These findings suggest that environmental surfaces serve as reservoirs for transmission, and integrating sensitive detection like ddPCR with proactive hygiene management may help mitigate EVs spread.
Keywords: enteroviruses; daycare center; environmental hygiene management; droplet digital PCR; surface contamination; virus transmission enteroviruses; daycare center; environmental hygiene management; droplet digital PCR; surface contamination; virus transmission
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MDPI and ACS Style

Kim, K.-S.; Jang, H.-J.; Koo, S.-Y.; Lee, J.-H.; Choi, I.-H.; Sim, C.-H.; Yoo, N.-N.; Eom, J.-G.; Jung, K.-Y.; Bang, E.-O.; et al. Detection of Enteroviruses on Environmental Surfaces in Daycare Centers Using Droplet Digital PCR (ddPCR) and Its Public Health Implications. Pathogens 2026, 15, 161. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15020161

AMA Style

Kim K-S, Jang H-J, Koo S-Y, Lee J-H, Choi I-H, Sim C-H, Yoo N-N, Eom J-G, Jung K-Y, Bang E-O, et al. Detection of Enteroviruses on Environmental Surfaces in Daycare Centers Using Droplet Digital PCR (ddPCR) and Its Public Health Implications. Pathogens. 2026; 15(2):161. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15020161

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kim, Kyung-Seon, Hye-Jin Jang, Seo-Youn Koo, Jeong-Hyun Lee, In-Hae Choi, Chae-Hyeon Sim, Ni-Na Yoo, Jin-Gyun Eom, Kyoung-Yong Jung, Eun-Ok Bang, and et al. 2026. "Detection of Enteroviruses on Environmental Surfaces in Daycare Centers Using Droplet Digital PCR (ddPCR) and Its Public Health Implications" Pathogens 15, no. 2: 161. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15020161

APA Style

Kim, K.-S., Jang, H.-J., Koo, S.-Y., Lee, J.-H., Choi, I.-H., Sim, C.-H., Yoo, N.-N., Eom, J.-G., Jung, K.-Y., Bang, E.-O., & Chung, Y.-S. (2026). Detection of Enteroviruses on Environmental Surfaces in Daycare Centers Using Droplet Digital PCR (ddPCR) and Its Public Health Implications. Pathogens, 15(2), 161. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15020161

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