Marketed Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Seeds: A Mycotoxin-Free Matrix Contaminated by Mycotoxigenic Fungi
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Marketed Quinoa Seed Samples
2.2. Isolation and Molecular Identification of the Fungal Microorganisms Associated with the Marketed Quinoa Seed Samples
- for those isolates morphologically ascribed to the genus Cladosporium, the sequences of the ITS region combined with those of the actin (ACT) gene [33] were used;
2.3. Fungal Secondary Metabolites Analysis in the Marketed Quinoa Seed Samples and in Fungal Cultures
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Mycobiota Associated with Marketed Quinoa Seed Samples
3.2. Phylogenetic Analysis of Isolates Developed from Marketed Quinoa Seeds
3.3. Secondary Metabolites in the Marketed Quinoa Seed Samples
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sample | Origin | Seed Color | Farming | Packaging |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Extra EU (Peru) | White | Integrated | Sealed Plastic Box |
2 | EU (Italy) | White | Integrated | Sealed Plastic Box |
3 | EU (Italy) | White | Integrated | Sealed Plastic Box |
4 | Extra EU (Peru) | White | Organic | Sealed Plastic Box |
5 | Extra EU (Country not specified) | White | Integrated | Sealed Plastic Box |
6 | Extra EU (Peru) | White | Organic | Sealed Plastic Box |
7 | EU (Italy) | White | Integrated | Sealed Plastic Box |
8 | EU (Italy) | White | Integrated | Sealed Plastic Box |
9 | Extra EU (Country not specified) | White | Organic | Sealed Plastic Box |
10 | Extra EU (Country not specified) | White | Integrated | Unsealed Cardboard Box |
11 | Extra EU (Peru) | White | Integrated | Bulk |
12 | Extra EU (Country not specified) | White | Organic | Sealed Plastic Box |
13 | Extra EU (Peru) | White | Integrated | Sealed Plastic Box |
14 | Extra EU (Peru) | Black | Integrated | Sealed Plastic Box |
15 | Extra EU (Peru) | Red | Integrated | Sealed Plastic Box |
16 | Extra EU (Peru) | White | Integrated | Sealed Plastic Box |
17 | EU (Country not specified) | White | Organic | Sealed Plastic Box |
18 | Extra EU (Bolivia) | Black | Organic | Sealed Plastic Box |
19 | Extra EU (Bolivia) | White | Organic | Sealed Plastic Box |
20 | Extra EU (Peru) | White | Organic | Sealed Plastic Box |
21 | Extra EU (Bolivia) | White | Organic | Bulk |
22 | Extra EU (Chile) | White | Integrated | Bulk |
23 | Extra EU (Ecuador) | White | Integrated | Bulk |
24 | Extra EU (Ecuador) | White | Integrated | Bulk |
25 | Extra EU (Bolivia) | White | Integrated | Bulk |
Sample | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | |
Alternaria | ● * | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||||||
Cladosporium | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | |||
Penicillium | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | |||||||||||
Aspergillus | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||||||||||||||
Fusarium | ● | ● | ● | ● |
Penicillium Secondary Metabolites | μg Kg−1 |
---|---|
Anthraquinoids | |
Endocrocin | 158 |
Asperphenamates | |
Asperphenamate | 377 |
Diketopiperazines | |
Brevianamide F | 5510 |
Cyclo (L-Pro_L-Tyr) | 32,900 |
Cyclo (L-Pro_L-Val) | 20,400 |
Neoxaline | 1350 |
Roquefortine C | 4870 |
Roquefortine D | 146 |
Puberulin A | 46,400 |
Rugulosuvin | 17,900 |
Imidazopyridoindoles | |
Meleagrin | 1670 |
Penicillic acids | |
Penicillic acid | 404,000 |
Propionic acids | |
3-Nitropropionic acid | 1,300,000 |
Terpenes | |
Andrastin A | 29,000 |
Andrastin B | 1850 |
Andrastin C | 45,900 |
Mycophenolic acid | 4780 |
Viridicatols | |
Cyclopenin | 106,000 |
Cyclopenol | 335,000 |
Cyclopeptine | 27,500 |
Dehydrocyclopeptine | 27,100 |
O-Methylviridicatin | 36,800 |
Viridicatin | 17,800 |
Viridicatol | 428,000 |
Secondary Metabolites | Seed Samples | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | |
Tetramic acid derivatives | |||||
Altersetin | 30.6 | 1.18 | 13.1 | 4.96 | 8.56 |
Diketopiperazines | |||||
Brevianamide F | 3.53 | 0.25 | 1.92 | 3.55 | 2.25 |
Cyclo (L-Pro L-Tyr) | 12.6 | 2.18 | 15.3 | 12.3 | 10.2 |
Cyclo (L-Pro_L-Val) | 12.7 | 3.24 | 21.6 | 13.2 | 11.4 |
Rugulosuvin | 1.04 | <LOD | <LOD | 1.06 | <LOD |
Indole alcohol | |||||
Tryptophol | 49.2 | 5.79 | 10.4 | 97.5 | 24.7 |
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© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Quaglia, M.; Beccari, G.; Vella, G.F.; Filippucci, R.; Buldini, D.; Onofri, A.; Sulyok, M.; Covarelli, L. Marketed Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Seeds: A Mycotoxin-Free Matrix Contaminated by Mycotoxigenic Fungi. Pathogens 2023, 12, 418. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12030418
Quaglia M, Beccari G, Vella GF, Filippucci R, Buldini D, Onofri A, Sulyok M, Covarelli L. Marketed Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Seeds: A Mycotoxin-Free Matrix Contaminated by Mycotoxigenic Fungi. Pathogens. 2023; 12(3):418. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12030418
Chicago/Turabian StyleQuaglia, Mara, Giovanni Beccari, Giovanna Fabiana Vella, Riccardo Filippucci, Dario Buldini, Andrea Onofri, Michael Sulyok, and Lorenzo Covarelli. 2023. "Marketed Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Seeds: A Mycotoxin-Free Matrix Contaminated by Mycotoxigenic Fungi" Pathogens 12, no. 3: 418. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12030418