Antimicrobial Resistance Creates Threat to Chimpanzee Health and Conservation in the Wild
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Descriptive Statistics of All Individuals
2.2. Diversity of Sulfonamide and Tetracycline Genes in Fecal Specimens
2.3. Stream Water Sampling
2.4. Risk Factors for Sulfonamide Resistance
3. Discussion
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Study Site
4.2. Sample Collection Period
4.3. Specimen Collection and Transport
4.4. Water Sampling
4.5. Detection of Resistance Genes to Sulfonamide and Tetracycline
4.6. Data Analysis
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Group/Source | n | Sulfonamide (sul1, sul2) | Tetracycline (tetA, tetB) | Significance of sul to tet Frequency | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Positive | Frequency (95% CI) | Positive | Frequency (95% CI) | |||
NHPs | ||||||
Mitumba Chimpanzee | 21 | 9 | 43 (23–66) | 1 | 5 (0–26) | |
Kasekela Chimpanzee | 54 | 27 | 50 (36–64) | 3 | 5 (0–16) | |
Baboons | 47 | 16 | 34 (21–49) | 0 | 0 (0–95) | p < 0.54 |
All Chimpanzee | 75 | 36 | 48 (36–60) | 4 | 5 (1–13) | p < 0.05 |
ALL NHPs | 122 | 52 | 43 (34–52) | 4 | 0 (0–1) | p < 0.05 |
Humans | ||||||
Mitumba | 32 | 26 | 81 (63–92) | 8 | 25 (12–44) | |
Kasekela | 61 | 48 | 79 (66–88) | 9 | 15 (1–27) | |
Mwamgongo | 94 | 65 | 69 (59–78) | 9 | 10 (0–18) | |
ALL HUMANS | 187 | 139 | 74 (67–80) | 26 | 14 (1–20) | p < 0.001 |
Domestic Animals | ||||||
Dog | 7 | 5 | 71 (30–95) | 1 | 14 (0–58) | Not evaluated |
Goat | 69 | 7 | 10 (5–20) | 4 | 6 (0–15) | p = 0.37 |
Sheep | 13 | 3 | 23 (1–54) | 0 | 0 (0–28) | Not evaluated |
ALL DOMESTIC ANIMALS | 89 | 15 | 17 (10–27) | 5 | 6 (0–13) | p < 0.001 |
Stream sites | 21 | 4 | 19 (1–43) | 0 | 0 (0–19) | |
Pipe | 1 | 0 | 0(0–95) | 0 | 0 (0–95) | |
ALL WATER | 22 | 4 | 18 (1–41) | 0 | 0 (0–60) |
Frequency of Genes (n; (%)) Detected from Fecal Specimens by PCR | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of Individuals Positive for Gene (Percentage) | McNemar’s p-Value Comparing sul to tet Gene Frequency * | ||||||||
Group/Source | n | sul1 Only | sul2 only | sul1/sul2 | tetA Only | tetB Only | tetA/tetB | Negative | |
NHPs | |||||||||
Mitumba Chimpanzee | 21 | 0 (0) | 7 (33) | 2 (10) | 0 (0) | 1 (5) | 0 (0) | 12 (57) | |
Kasekela Chimpanzee | 54 | 1 (2) | 19 (35) | 7 (13) | 0 (0) | 3 (6) | 0 (0) | 27 (50) | |
Baboon | 47 | 4 (9) | 9 (19) | 3 (6) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 31 (66) | p > 0.05 |
All Chimpanzee | 75 | 1 (1) | 26 (35) | 9 (12) | 0 (0) | 4 (5) | 0 (0) | 39 (52) | p < 0.001 |
ALL NHPs | 122 | 5 (4) | 35 (29) | 12 (10) | 0 (0) | 4 (3) | 0 (0) | 70 (57) | |
Humans | |||||||||
Mitumba | 32 | 1 (3) | 15 (47) | 10 (31) | 0 (0) | 8 (25) | 0 (0) | 4 (13) | |
Kasekela | 61 | 5 (8) | 30 (49) | 13 (21) | 1 (2) | 6 (10) | 2 (3) | 12 (20) | |
Mwamgongo | 94 | 7 (7) | 30 (32) | 28 (30) | 1 (1) | 8 (9) | 0 (0) | 29 (31) | |
ALL HUMANS | 187 | 13 (7) | 75 (40) | 51 (27) | 2 (1) | 22 (12) | 2 (1.07) | 45 (24) | p < 0.001 |
Domestic Animals | |||||||||
Dog | 7 | 0 (0) | 2 (29)) | 3 (43) | 0 (0) | 1 (14) | 0 (0) | 2 (29) | |
Goat | 69 | 1 (1) | 4 (6) | 2 (3) | 3 (4) | 1 (1) | 0 (0) | 61 (88) | |
Sheep | 13 | 1 (8) | 1 (8) | 1 (8) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 10 (77) | |
ALL DOMESTIC ANIMALS | 89 | 2 (2) | 7 (8) | 6 (7) | 3 (3) | 2 (2) | 0 (0) | 73 (82) | p < 0.001 |
Environmental | |||||||||
Stream sites | 21 | 0 (0) | 4 (19) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 17 (81) | |
Pipe | 1 | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (100) | |
ALL WATER | 22 | 0 (0) | 4 (18) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 18 (81) |
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Parsons, M.B.; Travis, D.A.; Lonsdorf, E.V.; Lipende, I.; Elchoufi, D.; Gilagiza, B.; Collins, A.; Kamenya, S.; Tauxe, R.V.; Gillespie, T.R. Antimicrobial Resistance Creates Threat to Chimpanzee Health and Conservation in the Wild. Pathogens 2021, 10, 477. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10040477
Parsons MB, Travis DA, Lonsdorf EV, Lipende I, Elchoufi D, Gilagiza B, Collins A, Kamenya S, Tauxe RV, Gillespie TR. Antimicrobial Resistance Creates Threat to Chimpanzee Health and Conservation in the Wild. Pathogens. 2021; 10(4):477. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10040477
Chicago/Turabian StyleParsons, Michele B., Dominic A. Travis, Elizabeth V. Lonsdorf, Iddi Lipende, Deema Elchoufi, Baraka Gilagiza, Anthony Collins, Shadrack Kamenya, Robert V. Tauxe, and Thomas R. Gillespie. 2021. "Antimicrobial Resistance Creates Threat to Chimpanzee Health and Conservation in the Wild" Pathogens 10, no. 4: 477. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10040477