Who Is Eligible for Telework? Exploring the Fast-Growing Acceptance of and Ability to Telework in Sweden, 2005–2006 to 2011–2014
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Data and Delimitations
3. Theoretical Expectations and Operationalization
3.1. Labor Market Sector
3.2. Technical Solutions
3.3. Skill and Status
3.4. Work–Life Balance and Gender
4. Statistical Analysis
5. Concluding Discussion
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Definition of Employment Sector
Employment Sector | Description | SNI2002 (2005–2006) | SNI2007 (2011–2014) |
Knowledge-intensive industry | Manufacturing of chemicals, machinery, electronics, transport equipment | 22, 24, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35 | 18, 20, 21, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33 |
Capital-intensive industry | Agriculture, forestry, mining, electricity, gas and water supply, manufacturing of pulp, paper, coke, petroleum, basic metals | 1, 2, 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 21, 23, 27, 40, 41 | 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 17, 19, 24, 35, 36 |
Labour-intensive industry | Manufacturing of food products, textile and leather products, plastic products, furniture | 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 26, 28, 36, 37 | 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, 23, 25, 31, 32 |
Knowledge-intensive services: advanced services | Financial intermediation, computer activities, research and development, business activities | 65, 66, 67, 72, 73, 74, 99 | 58, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 78, 80, 81, 82, 99 |
Knowledge-intensive services: education | Education | 80 | 85 |
Knowledge-intensive services: other | Public administration, health and social work, recreational, cultural and sporting activities | 75, 85, 91, 92 | 59, 75, 84, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94 |
Capital-intensive services | Transportation, post and telecommunications, real estate | 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 70, 71 | 41, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 61, 68, 77, 79 |
Labour-intensive services | Construction, wholesale and retail trade, hotels, restaurants, sanitation | 45, 50, 51, 52, 55, 90, 93, 95 | 37, 38, 39, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 55, 56, 95, 96, 97, 98 |
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1 | We initially also investigated what groups of employees eligible for telework actually choose to adopt telework on a regular basis. However, we found smaller effects and explanatory power for adoption than for eligibility and similar factors that play a role in telework eligibility also do so in telework adoption. Other factors that we could not include in the analysis probably play a key role here. For various reasons, telework does not suit everyone and working remotely sometimes has negative effects on, for example, career advancement, stress, family relations and social relations at work. These are, however, not questions that can be answered by analyzing the data used here. |
Variable | Definition/Category | 2005–2006 | 2011–2014 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | n | % | ||
Eligible for telework? | No | 6436 | 77.4 | 5228 | 64.9 |
Yes | 1884 | 22.6 | 2830 | 35.1 | |
Employment sector † | Knowledge-intensive industry | 816 | 10.1 | 593 | 7.6 |
Capital-intensive industry | 333 | 4.1 | 306 | 3.9 | |
Labour-intensive industry | 530 | 6.5 | 452 | 5.8 | |
Knowledge-intensive services: advanced services | 910 | 11.2 | 1085 | 13.9 | |
Knowledge-intensive services: education | 1092 | 13.5 | 1112 | 14.2 | |
Knowledge-intensive services: other | 2306 | 28.5 | 2331 | 28.6 | |
Capital-intensive services | 581 | 7.2 | 634 | 8.1 | |
Labour-intensive services | 1532 | 18.9 | 1299 | 16.6 | |
Internet access | No broadband at home | 3020 | 36.3 | 1755 | 22.4 |
Broadband at home | 5294 | 63.7 | 6064 | 77.6 | |
Can access work email remotely? | No | 5630 | 68.7 | 3433 | 44.7 |
Yes | 2560 | 31.3 | 4245 | 55.3 | |
Can access work computer remotely? | No | 6927 | 85.2 | 5177 | 69.9 |
Yes | 1205 | 14.8 | 2229 | 30.1 | |
Education | <Upper secondary school | 1096 | 13.1 | 807 | 10.0 |
Upper secondary school | 3976 | 47.5 | 3558 | 43.9 | |
Higher education ≤2 years | 514 | 6.1 | 1345 | 16.6 | |
Higher education >2 years | 2784 | 33.3 | 2399 | 29.6 | |
Income | Lowest quartile | 1975 | 25.4 | 1817 | 25.0 |
Second quartile | 2096 | 27.0 | 1853 | 25.5 | |
Third quartile | 1813 | 23.3 | 1942 | 26.8 | |
Highest quartile | 1883 | 24.2 | 1646 | 22.7 | |
Employment contract | Permanent, full-time employed | 6194 | 73.6 | 6158 | 75.7 |
Permanent, part-time employed | 1190 | 14.1 | 1164 | 14.3 | |
Temporary | 1035 | 12.3 | 809 | 9.9 | |
Gender | Male | 4106 | 48.7 | 3918 | 48.1 |
Female | 4319 | 51.3 | 4231 | 51.9 | |
Life course | Younger, 15–44 years old, no children | 1700 | 20.4 | 1197 | 14.8 |
Parent, children 0–6 years old | 1424 | 17.1 | 1441 | 17.8 | |
Parent, children 7–18 years old | 2470 | 29.6 | 2401 | 29.7 | |
Older, ≥45 years old, no children | 2748 | 32.9 | 3034 | 37.6 |
2005–2006 | 2011–2014 | Change (Percentage Points) | |
---|---|---|---|
Total | 22.6% (21.7–23.5) | 35.1% (34.1–36.2) | +12.5 |
Employment sector | |||
Knowledge-intensive industry | 27.8% (24.7–30.9) | 44.3% (40.3–48.3) | +16.5 |
Capital-intensive industry | 17.0% (12.9–21.1) | 31.9% (26.6–37.1) | +14.9 |
Labour-intensive industry | 11.3% (8.5–14.0) | 22.9% (19.0–26.8) | +11.6 |
Knowledge-intensive services: advanced services | 40.5% (37.3–43.7) | 60.4% (57.5–63.4) | +19.9 |
Knowledge-intensive services: education | 29.8% (27.1–32.5) | 44.3% (41.4–47.2) | +14.5 |
Knowledge-intensive services: other | 17.7% (16.1–19.2) | 27.9% (26.1–29.7) | +10.2 |
Capital-intensive services | 21.9% (18.5–25.3) | 30.5% (26.9–34.1) | +8.6 |
Labour-intensive services | 18.8% (16.8–20.7) | 26.4% (24.0–28.8) | +7.6 |
Internet | |||
Broadband at home | 25.8% (24.6–26.9) | 38.1% (36.8–39.3) | +12.3 |
No broadband at home | 17.2% (15.9–18.6) | 28.5% (26.4–30.6) | +11.3 |
Can access work email remotely? | |||
Yes | 45.9% (43.9–47.8) | 58.0% (56.5–59.5) | +12.1 |
No | 12.4% (11.5–13.3) | 10.0% (9.0–11.0) | –2.4 |
Can access work computer remotely? | |||
Yes | 60.1% (57.3–62.9) | 78.1% (76.3–79.8) | +18.0 |
No | 16.4% (15.5–17.3) | 19.0% (17.9–20.1) | +2.6 |
Education | |||
<Upper secondary school | 7.4% (5.9–9.0) | 12.9% (10.5–15.2) | +5.5 |
Upper secondary school | 14.9% (13.8–16.0) | 21.7% (20.3–23.1) | +6.8 |
Higher education ≤2 years | 34.5% (30.4–38.7) | 43.2% (40.5–45.8) | +8.7 |
Higher education >2 years | 37.7% (35.9–39.5) | 58.2% (56.2–60.2) | +20.5 |
Income | |||
Lowest quartile | 7.7% (6.5–8.9) | 12.8% (11.3–14.3) | +5.1 |
Second quartile | 14.6% (13.1–16.1) | 24.9% (23.0–26.9) | +10.3 |
Third quartile | 25.8% (23.7–27.8) | 40.2% (38.1–42.4) | +14.4 |
Highest quartile | 47.9% (45.6–50.1) | 71.3% (69.1–73.5) | +23.4 |
Employment contract | |||
Permanent, full-time employed | 25.7% (24.6–26.8) | 39.6% (38.4–40.9) | +13.9 |
Permanent, part-time employed | 13.2% (11.3–15.1) | 21.7% (19.3–24.1) | +8.5 |
Temporary | 15.5% (13.2–17.7) | 20.3% (17.5–23.1) | +4.8 |
Gender | |||
Male | 25.0% (23.7–26.3) | 38.2% (36.7–39.7) | +13.2 |
Female | 20.4% (19.2–21.6) | 32.3% (30.9–33.7) | +11.9 |
Life course | |||
Younger, 15–44 years, no children | 22.9% (20.8–24.9) | 33.6% (30.9–36.3) | +10.7 |
Parent, children 0–6 years old | 29.3% (26.9–31.7) | 46.2% (43.6–48.8) | +16.9 |
Parent, children 7–18 years old | 21.4% (19.7–23.0) | 36.4% (34.5–38.3) | +15.0 |
Older, ≥45 years, no children | 20.4% (18.9–21.9) | 29.8% (28.2–31.4) | +9.4 |
2005–2006 | 2011–2014 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | Sig. | OR | B | Sig. | OR | |
Employment sector (ref = Knowledge-intensive services: other) | ||||||
Knowledge-intensive industry | 0.379 ** | 0.001 | 1.460 | 0.439 ** | 0.002 | 1.551 |
Capital-intensive industry | −0.129 | 0.486 | 0.879 | −0.069 | 0.712 | 0.933 |
Labour-intensive industry | −0.057 | 0.741 | 0.944 | 0.222 | 0.206 | 1.249 |
Knowledge-intensive services: advanced services | 0.618 ** | 0.000 | 1.855 | 0.948 ** | 0.000 | 2.579 |
Knowledge-intensive services: education | 0.176 | 0.090 | 1.193 | 0.251 * | 0.016 | 1.285 |
Capital-intensive services | 0.341 * | 0.015 | 1.406 | 0.382 ** | 0.009 | 1.465 |
Labour-intensive services | 0.375 ** | 0.000 | 1.455 | 0.217 | 0.069 | 1.242 |
Can access work email remotely? (ref = Yes) | ||||||
No | −0.885 ** | 0.000 | 0.413 | −1.238 ** | 0.000 | 0.290 |
Can access work computer remotely? (ref = Yes) | ||||||
No | −0.855 ** | 0.000 | 0.425 | −1.516 ** | 0.000 | 0.219 |
Education (ref = Upper secondary school) | ||||||
<Upper secondary school | −0.465 ** | 0.001 | 0.628 | −0.247 | 0.128 | 0.781 |
Higher education ≤2 years | 0.529 ** | 0.000 | 1.697 | 0.517 ** | 0.000 | 1.677 |
Higher education >2 years | 0.606 ** | 0.000 | 1.832 | 0.791 ** | 0.000 | 2.207 |
Income (ref = Lowest quartile) | ||||||
Second quartile | 0.566 ** | 0.000 | 1.760 | 0.561 ** | 0.000 | 1.752 |
Third quartile | 1.107 ** | 0.000 | 3.026 | 0.908 ** | 0.000 | 2.480 |
Highest quartile | 1.767 ** | 0.000 | 5.852 | 1.718 ** | 0.000 | 5.571 |
Gender (ref = Male) | ||||||
Female | 0.256 ** | 0.000 | 1.291 | 0.237 ** | 0.003 | 1.268 |
Life course (ref = Older, ≥45 years, no children) | ||||||
Younger, 15–44 years old, no children | 0.246 * | 0.010 | 1.280 | 0.253 * | 0.022 | 1.288 |
Parent, children 0–6 years old | 0.332 ** | 0.000 | 1.393 | 0.328 ** | 0.001 | 1.388 |
Parent. children 7–18 years old | 0.079 | 0.339 | 1.083 | 0.142 | 0.094 | 1.153 |
Model statistics | ||||||
Constant | −1.697 | 0.000 | 0.184 | −0.816 | 0.000 | 0.442 |
% correct | 76.0% | 80.8% | ||||
Cox & Snell r2 | 0.219 | 0.382 | ||||
Nagelkarke r2 | 0.328 | 0.518 |
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Share and Cite
Elldér, E. Who Is Eligible for Telework? Exploring the Fast-Growing Acceptance of and Ability to Telework in Sweden, 2005–2006 to 2011–2014. Soc. Sci. 2019, 8, 200. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci8070200
Elldér E. Who Is Eligible for Telework? Exploring the Fast-Growing Acceptance of and Ability to Telework in Sweden, 2005–2006 to 2011–2014. Social Sciences. 2019; 8(7):200. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci8070200
Chicago/Turabian StyleElldér, Erik. 2019. "Who Is Eligible for Telework? Exploring the Fast-Growing Acceptance of and Ability to Telework in Sweden, 2005–2006 to 2011–2014" Social Sciences 8, no. 7: 200. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci8070200
APA StyleElldér, E. (2019). Who Is Eligible for Telework? Exploring the Fast-Growing Acceptance of and Ability to Telework in Sweden, 2005–2006 to 2011–2014. Social Sciences, 8(7), 200. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci8070200