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Article

Emotional Intelligence, Immediate Auditory Memory, and ICT in Primary Education: A Neuroeducational Approach

by
Raquel Muñoz-Pradas
1,
Alejandro Romero-Morales
1,
Antonio Palacios-Rodríguez
2,* and
Mª Victoria Fernández-Scagliusi
2
1
Osuna University School, 41640 Osuna, Spain
2
Department of Didactics and Educational Organization, University of Seville, 41013 Seville, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Soc. Sci. 2026, 15(2), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci15020058
Submission received: 21 November 2025 / Revised: 19 January 2026 / Accepted: 21 January 2026 / Published: 23 January 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Educational Technology for a Multimodal Society)
Versions Notes

Abstract

This study examines the relationship between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Immediate Auditory Memory (IAM) in primary-school students aged 10–12 years. Through a neuroeducational perspective, it explores how emotional competencies, particularly emotional meta-knowledge, interact with cognitive retention processes. Standardized instruments were administered to a sample of 175 students from schools in Southern Spain. The findings indicate a positive association between Emotional Clarity—a key subdimension of EI—and IAM, with Emotional Clarity emerging as a modest predictor of auditory retention. No notable associations were observed for Emotional Attention or Emotional Repair. These results suggest that the ability to understand one’s emotions may subtly facilitate the processing and retention of auditory information. From neuroscientific and technological viewpoints, the study highlights the potential benefits of integrating emotional education and digital tools in the classroom to enhance student well-being and cognitive development, while calling for cautious interpretation due to the multifaceted nature of these variables.

1. Introduction

In recent years, Emotional Intelligence (EI) has sparked significant interest, especially among many educators. There is a extensive body of literature to support this. Among the myriads of relationships that have been established between Emotional Intelligence and other variables to test its significance, a gap was found regarding its connection with Immediate Auditory Memory (IAM). This is why this research was conducted, as it contributes to a space that is as unexplored as it is interesting.
Emotional Intelligence can be understood, according to Macías and Intriago (2024), as the ability to have personal and social awareness, enabling emotional management and the management of our social relationships. As Ruiz-Ortega and Martos (2023) have shown, high EI leads to a higher level of well-being, both subjective and psychological. Furthermore, as if this were not enough, numerous studies confirm how it increases students’ academic performance. In other words, it brings benefits in both personal and professional spheres (Fernández-Berrocal et al. 2022). In this way, the interest it generates can be understood.
Likewise, Immediate Auditory Memory is defined as “that which stores information from the auditory canal for a limited period of time and whose retrieval is immediate” (Marimón and Méndez 2013). Although, at first glance, it is undervalued compared to long-term memory, this type of memory is as valuable, if not more so, for our survival. Information is continuously received from a wide variety of sources and is retained in this memory to be used to our advantage and discarded shortly afterward when it is no longer useful. Although no apparent relationship has been found between the two variables, it can be affirmed that there are two strong links that sparked the research. On the one hand, through multiple brain connections, and on the other, through the intuition that adequate EI can alleviate the brain’s workload, thus speeding up memorization (including IAM).

1.1. Emotions

Emotions are fundamental human experiences that significantly influence perception, attention, decision-making, and learning processes (Kandel et al. 2013; Immordino-Yang and Damasio 2007). From a neuroscientific perspective, emotions involve the limbic system—particularly the amygdala and hippocampus—which plays a critical role in emotional regulation and memory consolidation (Mora 2012; Kolb and Whishaw 2017). Well-regulated emotional states can enhance the encoding and retrieval of information, whereas disruptive emotions may interfere with cognitive performance, including attention and short-term retention (Salcedo-de-la-Fuente et al. 2024; Burgos Acosta 2024).
In educational contexts, this emotion–cognition interplay is especially relevant during childhood, when emotional experiences shape attentional resources and memory processes essential for academic learning (Bisquerra et al. 2012; Nieto-Carracedo et al. 2024). The present study adopts a trait perspective on Emotional Intelligence, focusing on meta-awareness dimensions (Attention, Clarity, and Repair) that may mitigate negative emotional interference and support cognitive tasks such as immediate auditory memory.

1.2. Immediate Auditory Memory and Its Relationship with Emotions

Immediate auditory memory refers to the short-term retention and immediate retrieval of auditory information, a critical component of working memory essential for following verbal instructions and classroom learning (Kolb and Whishaw 2017; Marimón and Méndez 2013). Auditory memory is, the ability to remember and reproduce sound stimuli—is key in activities such as following instructions, learning songs, or reproducing rhythms (Solís 2015).
From a neurological perspective, auditory processing involves the temporal lobe and primary auditory cortex, interacting with the hippocampus (Patestas and Gartner 2006; Kandel et al. 2013).
The prefrontal cortex, intensely involved in short-term perceptual memory and emotional regulation, functionally interacts with the limbic system, particularly the hippocampus and amygdala (Carlson 2005; Patestas and Gartner 2006). Key brain structures, including the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex, are responsible for emotional modulation and memory consolidation (Agualsaca Calle et al. 2025). Well-regulated emotions can reduce cognitive load and optimize attentional resources, thereby facilitating auditory encoding and retrieval, whereas emotional distress may impair these processes (Nieto-Carracedo et al. 2024; Wright et al. 2025). These interconnections provide a neuroscientific basis for hypothesizing that adequate Emotional Intelligence, particularly Emotional Clarity and Repair, can support the functioning of immediate auditory memory (Kolb and Whishaw 2017; Patestas and Gartner 2006).
This emotion–memory interplay underscores the relevance of investigating trait Emotional Intelligence dimensions in relation to IAM performance in educational settings.

1.3. Emotional Intelligence in Educational Contexts

Emotional Intelligence (EI) is defined as the ability to perceive, understand, and regulate emotions (Salovey et al. 1995; Macías and Intriago 2024), with the Trait Meta-Mood Scale-24 (TMMS-24) assessing three core dimensions: Attention, Clarity, and Repair (Fernández-Berrocal et al. 2004).
EI has a widely demonstrated positive impact in education, promoting school adaptation, learning, academic performance, and students’ emotional and social well-being (Suárez Cretton and Castro Méndez 2022). Recent research indicates that emotional regulation mediates executive functions, including memory retention, by reducing cognitive load associated with emotional distress (Nieto-Carracedo et al. 2024; Wright et al. 2025).
Immediate Auditory Memory (IAM), a specific type of short-term memory, also shows significant implications for learning. Although the use of long-term memory has traditionally been emphasized in teaching, current educational trends place greater value on the role of short-term memory, especially in practical and digital contexts.
Various studies have linked IAM with basic student skills. Guzón et al. (2009) show that many oral language disorders in children stem from alterations in immediate auditory memory and working memory, particularly affecting articulatory ability. Additionally, Chocano (2003) demonstrates a significant and inverse relationship between IAM and spelling errors: the greater the immediate auditory ability, the fewer spelling mistakes, with better results in girls than in boys. Likewise, León and Rodríguez (2017) find a positive correlation between IAM and writing tasks in general, and Yaringaño (2014) identifies a significant link between IAM and reading comprehension, confirming that the latter favors the auditory retention of data and concepts.
Building upon these foundational findings, recent neuroeducational research has further explained the interplay between emotional states and cognitive performance. For instance, Nieto-Carracedo et al. (2024) argue that emotional regulation acts as a critical mediator for executive functions, including memory retention, by reducing cognitive load associated with emotional distress. Similarly, studies by Wright et al. (2025) have demonstrated that emotional clarity—the ability to identify and understand one’s feelings—optimizes the allocation of attentional resources, which is essential for the effective functioning of immediate auditory memory.
In conclusion, both Emotional Intelligence and Immediate Auditory Memory are key tools for academic success. Its integration into the educational environment contributes to the comprehensive development of students, facilitating learning, emotional self-regulation, and communicative competence from an early age.

1.4. Educational Technology and Its Role in the Relationship Between Memory and Emotions

The development of educational technology in recent decades has transformed teaching and learning processes, moving from a merely instrumental focus to a pedagogical paradigm centered on digital neuroeducation. In this context, ICT are not only tools for transmitting information but mediators of meaningful learning, enabling the design of experiences in which emotion and cognition closely interact (Área Moreira 2019). Indeed, ICT act as a significant driver of change in educational systems by integrating the neuroscientific understanding of technologies in educational settings (Falco and Kuz 2016). Neuroeducational literature has highlighted that the encoding and consolidation of memory are strongly influenced by emotions… The integration of educational technologies with affective neuroscience facilitates the creation of personalized and emotionally intelligent learning environments, including adaptive learning, artificial intelligence, and virtual reality (Agualsaca Calle et al. 2025).
Neuroeducational literature has highlighted that the encoding and consolidation of memory are strongly influenced by emotions, so the creation of learning environments rich in multisensory and emotionally engaging stimuli facilitates information retention (Mora 2012). In particular, immediate auditory memory can be enhanced when auditory stimuli are combined with visual and kinesthetic resources, in line with the principles of multimodal learning described by Mayer (2014). Thus, educational technology is posited as a promising tool to conceptually link memory and emotions, offering potential avenues for fostering the development of emotional intelligence while optimizing students’ cognitive functions in future interventions, though its empirical role was not tested in this study.
Digital cognitive training programs, such as CogniFit, NeuronUP, or Lumosity, provide adaptive exercises aimed at stimulating working memory, sustained attention, and immediate auditory memory. These platforms apply gamification dynamics, incorporating immediate rewards and progressive challenges that increase students’ intrinsic motivation (González-González and Mora 2021).
Research suggests that these tools support neural plasticity and generate improvements in basic executive functions, although the transfer of these skills to school contexts requires proper curricular integration (Green and Bavelier 2012). Therefore, these activities are recommended as a complement to contextualized educational practices, rather than ends in themselves.
Technology has also facilitated the emergence of digital resources aimed at training emotional intelligence. Apps such as Smiling Mind or Headspace include mindfulness and self-regulation programs, allowing students to improve awareness of their internal states and specifically train emotional clarity, a dimension that, as this study has shown, is significantly related to immediate auditory memory.
Additionally, educational platforms like ClassDojo promote self-reflection and positive reinforcement, linking emotional management with classroom coexistence. Evidence indicates that these digital resources contribute to reducing academic stress and fostering resilience, key elements for optimizing short-term memory and cognitive performance (Durlak et al. 2011). These digital resources represent potential avenues for the future development of neuroeducational interventions, although their specific effectiveness was not empirically tested in the present study.
Despite these theoretical and technological advancements, a systematic engagement with existing empirical research reveals a specific gap that the current study addresses. While the link between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and general academic achievement is well-documented, there is a lack of studies that critically examine its relationship with specific cognitive processes such as Immediate Auditory Memory (IAM). Most prior research has prioritized visual-spatial memory or general working memory, leaving the auditory-verbal coding pathway under-explored. Furthermore, when EI has been linked to memory processes, investigations typically employ aggregated working memory measures that combine visual-spatial and verbal components without isolating auditory-specific retention, and they rarely disaggregate trait EI subdimensions such as Clarity, Attention, and Repair into their predictive roles for specific cognitive outcomes (Diamond 2013; Blair and Raver 2015; Gutiérrez-Cobo et al. 2017; MacCann et al. 2020). By targeting the EI–IAM relationship in pre-adolescents—a developmental stage where auditory processing supports increasing academic demands—this study provides a more focused contribution to understanding how specific emotional competencies may subtly influence auditory information retention.

1.5. Objectives and Hypotheses

The main objective of this study is to analyze Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Immediate Auditory Memory (IAM) in a sample of 175 students between the ages of 10 and 12, with the goal of determining the existence of a significant relationship between the two variables. Through a neuroeducational perspective, the research seeks to determine whether specific EI subdimensions are associated with auditory retention performance, contributing empirical evidence on the interplay between emotional competencies and short-term cognitive processing.
Specifically, this study has the following objectives:
  • To describe levels of Immediate Auditory Memory and Emotional Intelligence (Attention, Clarity, and Repair) in the sample.
  • To analyze the associations between the three dimensions of Emotional Intelligence and Immediate Auditory Memory.
  • To identify which EI dimension, if any, predicts Immediate Auditory Memory performance.
Based on the theoretical framework and prior evidence linking emotional regulation to cognitive processes, the following hypotheses were tested:
Hypothesis 1.
There will be a positive relationship between Emotional Intelligence (overall and/or its subdimensions) and Immediate Auditory Memory performance.
Hypothesis 2.
Emotional Clarity will be the strongest predictor of Immediate Auditory Memory among the three TMMS-24 dimensions (Attention, Clarity, and Repair).
The study seeks not only to validate these hypotheses but also to provide empirical evidence to support the implementation of pedagogical strategies aimed at strengthening Emotional Intelligence and Immediate Auditory Memory in the school context.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

Following the recommendations of the application guides for the standardized instruments used, these can be administered starting in the second cycle of Primary Education (8 years of age). In our case, to narrow the population further, this research focused on the third cycle, that is, children between the ages of 10 and 12, with a mean age of 11.05 years (SD = 0.82). Specifically, the sample consisted of 175 students from three schools in the towns of Écija and Osuna (Seville): 80 boys and 95 girls. This was a convenience sample, based on the voluntary collaboration of the educational centers, which limits the generalizability of the findings and is further discussed as a limitation.
Regarding the selection and inclusion/exclusion criteria, children with normative development were included, meaning those developing as expected or typical for their age according to school records. Students who were taking medication (except for allergies) were excluded. Additionally, all those with a pre-existing formal diagnosis of ADD or ADHD (as documented in school records or confirmed by school psychologists) were excluded from the study. We acknowledge that the precise number of students excluded for these reasons, and a detailed account of how these diagnoses were established within each school context, were not systematically recorded in detail for this study, representing a methodological limitation.
Ethical approval and informed consent details are provided in Section 2.3 Procedure.

2.2. Data Collection Instruments

The study employed two standardized instruments to assess Emotional Intelligence and Immediate Auditory Memory.
Emotional Intelligence was measured using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale-24 (TMMS-24; Salovey et al. 1995; Spanish adaptation by Fernández-Berrocal et al. 2004). This 24-item self-report questionnaire evaluates three dimensions of trait meta-awareness of emotional states: Emotional Attention (awareness of one’s feelings), Emotional Clarity (understanding of one’s emotional states), and Emotional Repair (ability to regulate moods), with eight items per dimension. Although originally designed for adults, its application in pre-adolescents is supported by recent validation studies confirming adequate psychometric properties in school-aged populations (Patti-Signorelli and Romero-Diaz de la Guardia 2023; Nieto-Carracedo et al. 2024). Reported reliability indices from comparable child and adolescent samples indicate good internal consistency for the subscales (Emotional Attention: α = 0.82–0.87; Emotional Clarity: α = 0.84–0.88; Emotional Repair: α = 0.78–0.87; Zúñiga et al. 2019; Martínez-Líbano et al. 2025). The questionnaire was administered in classroom settings under the supervision of the research team. Completed questionnaires were subsequently processed and analyzed by the authors, who received anonymized summed subscale scores for statistical analysis. Due to the unavailability of item-level responses, sample-specific reliability coefficients (α and ω) could not be calculated in the present study. However, the TMMS-24 is a standardized instrument with widely demonstrated psychometric validity and internal consistency in Spanish populations (Fernández-Berrocal et al. 2004), which supports the reliability of the dimensional scores used in this study.
Immediate Auditory Memory was assessed with the Cordero Pando Immediate Auditory Memory Test, from TEA Ediciones, S.A (Cordero Pando 1978). This standardized instrument, suitable for children aged 8 years and older, evaluates logical, numerical, and associative memory through auditory stimuli without a fixed time limit. It has been widely used in Spanish-speaking educational and clinical contexts to measure short-term auditory retention and demonstrates adequate reliability and validity in primary-school populations, with normative data supporting its application in the target age range.

2.3. Procedure

To obtain the sample, various educational centers in the province of Seville were contacted via email. After several attempts, the collaboration of a private school, a public school, and a state-subsidized school was secured. Dates and times for administering the instruments were coordinated with each school according to their availability. Data collection was carried out in collaboration with the participating schools; however, all methodological decisions, data management, and statistical analyses were performed exclusively by the authors. The raw data (total scores) were digitized into a secure database managed directly by the research team to ensure accuracy and reproducibility.
The tests were administered in scheduled sessions during school hours, adapting to the organizational needs of each center. The approximate duration for completing both instruments was one hour per group, with slight variations depending on classroom dynamics.
All procedures conducted in this study complied with current Spanish and European regulations regarding data protection and research involving minors (Regulation (EU) 2016/679–GDPR; Organic Law 3/2018 on the Protection of Personal Data and Guarantee of Digital Rights). Written informed consent was obtained from all parents or legal guardians prior to the participation of the students. The study received formal approval from the Research Ethics Committee of the Universidad de Sevilla, under approval number US-CEI-2025/041, and project code EDU-NEURO-24-19. All procedures adhered to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki, guaranteeing confidentiality, anonymity, and voluntary participation throughout the research process.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics 26. Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, minimum, and maximum values) were calculated for Emotional Attention, Emotional Clarity, Emotional Repair, and Immediate Auditory Memory. The distribution of the variables was examined using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Shapiro–Wilk tests. As these tests indicated deviations from normality (p < 0.05), non-parametric statistical procedures were selected as the most appropriate and robust statistical approach for this dataset. Specifically, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient (ρ) was employed to examine the associations between the dimensions of Emotional Intelligence and Immediate Auditory Memory.
A significance level of α = 0.05 (two-tailed) was applied for all correlation analyses. At an initial exploratory stage, a simple linear regression analysis was conducted to examine the potential predictive role of Emotional Clarity on Immediate Auditory Memory. However, given the non-normal distribution of the data and the negligible proportion of explained variance, this analysis was excluded from the final results to avoid overinterpretation of predictive effects.
Complementary exploratory non-parametric analyses (Mann–Whitney U for gender differences; Kruskal–Wallis for age group differences) were performed to examine potential group variations in the study variables.

3. Results

Age-related differences were examined using the Kruskal–Wallis test. No statistically significant differences were found between age groups (10 vs. 11 years) in Immediate Auditory Memory, H(1) = 0.473, p = 0.492, Emotional Attention, H(1) = 0.082, p = 0.775, Emotional Clarity, H(1) = 0.010, p = 0.921, or Emotional Repair, H(1) = 2.079, p = 0.149.
Gender differences were examined using the Mann–Whitney U test. No statistically significant differences were found between boys and girls in Immediate Auditory Memory (U = 3538.500, p = 0.433), Emotional Clarity (U = 3415.500, p = 0.249), or Emotional Repair (U = 3536.500, p = 0.429). However, a statistically significant difference was observed in Emotional Attention, with higher scores in boys than in girls (U = 3084.500, p = 0.032).
The descriptive analysis of the sample (N = 175) shows that Immediate Auditory Memory (IAM) has a mean of 50.77 (σ = 12.06), with values between 15 and 85. Regarding the components of Emotional Intelligence (EI), Emotional Attention has a mean of 23.14 (σ = 5.34), with a range of 8 to 36. Emotional Clarity shows a mean of 26.51 (σ = 5.97), with values between 12 and 39. Finally, Emotional Repair records the highest mean (28.74, σ = 6.55), with a range of 12 to 40. These results reflect a moderate variability in the dimensions of Emotional Intelligence within the sample analyzed (Table 1).
In order to explore the distribution of the variables and to obtain an initial overview of their behavior, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov (K–S) and Shapiro–Wilk tests were applied to the dimensions of Emotional Intelligence (Emotional Attention, Emotional Clarity, and Emotional Repair) and to Immediate Auditory Memory (IAM) (Table 2). The results indicated statistically significant deviations from normality in several variables.
Given the non-normal distribution evidenced by these tests, non-parametric statistical procedures were selected in accordance with methodological recommendations for psychological and educational research. Specifically, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient (ρ) was employed to examine the associations between the components of Emotional Intelligence and Immediate Auditory Memory, as it does not assume normality and is appropriate for non-normally distributed continuous data. A significance level of α = 0.05 (two-tailed) was applied for all correlation analyses (Table 3).
The results indicate that associations between Immediate Auditory Memory and the three dimensions of Emotional Intelligence (Emotional Attention, Emotional Clarity, and Emotional Repair) were examined using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient (ρ), which does not assume normality and is appropriate for ordinal or non-normally distributed continuous data. A significance level of α = 0.05 (two-tailed) was applied for all analyses. Spearman correlation analyses revealed a positive and statistically significant association between Emotional Clarity and Immediate Auditory Memory (ρ = 0.171, p = 0.024). No significant correlations were found between Immediate Auditory Memory and Emotional Attention (ρ = 0.134, p = 0.077) or Emotional Repair (ρ = 0.102, p = 0.180). These results indicate that higher levels of Emotional Clarity are modestly associated with better performance in immediate auditory memory tasks, whereas the other Emotional Intelligence dimensions did not show significant relationships with this cognitive variable (Table 3).
In an initial stage of the analysis, a simple linear regression was conducted on an exploratory basis to examine the potential predictive role of Emotional Clarity on Immediate Auditory Memory. However, given the non-normal distribution of the data and the very limited proportion of explained variance, this analysis was subsequently excluded from the final results. In line with methodological recommendations and to avoid overinterpretation of negligible predictive effects, the final analyses focus exclusively on non-parametric correlation procedures, which adequately address the study objectives without implying predictive relationships. In response to reviewer recommendations and to provide complementary information about the sample, exploratory non-parametric analyses were conducted.
First, gender differences were examined using the Mann–Whitney U test. No statistically significant differences were found between boys and girls in Emotional Attention, Emotional Clarity, Emotional Repair, or Immediate Auditory Memory (all p > 0.05).
Next, school-level differences (public, private, and state-subsidized) and age differences (10 vs. 11 years) were analyzed using the Kruskal–Wallis test. These analyses revealed no significant differences across schools or age groups for any of the variables (all p > 0.05).
The internal consistency of the instrument was analyzed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. First, reliability was calculated by jointly considering the three evaluated dimensions: emotional attention, emotional clarity, and emotional repair. The analysis yielded a value of α = 0.56, indicating low reliability.
This result should be interpreted with caution, as the analyzed dimensions represent conceptually distinct components of emotional intelligence rather than a unidimensional construct. Therefore, the calculation of a global reliability index is not methodologically appropriate, since Cronbach’s alpha assumes that all analyzed items or variables measure the same latent construct.
Likewise, it was not possible to calculate the reliability of each dimension independently, as the variables available in the data matrix correspond to aggregated total scores for each dimension (attention, clarity, and emotional repair), rather than to the individual items that compose them. In this regard, Cronbach’s alpha is not applicable to variables formed by a single indicator.
Regarding the MAI, it was not possible to calculate its reliability in the present study. The MAI variable is expressed in the database as a global score or percentile, without access to the original items that comprise the instrument.
Since the calculation of Cronbach’s alpha requires the presence of multiple items measuring the same construct, the absence of individual items prevents the estimation of the internal consistency of the MAI in this sample. Therefore, the reliability of the instrument is assumed based on previous psychometric evidence reported in the scientific literature, where the MAI has shown adequate levels of internal consistency.
In addition, the original database used for the analyses has been included in the manuscript in order to ensure transparency and facilitate the replication of the study. The dataset contains the variables analyzed in the present research and reflects the aggregated scores available for each instrument, in accordance with the ethical and methodological considerations established for this study.

4. Discussion

This study explored the relationship between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Immediate Auditory Memory (IAM) in third-cycle primary-school students, providing empirical evidence of the interdependence between these variables. The findings provide statistical support for the hypothesis that Emotional Clarity plays a role in Immediate Auditory Memory performance, indicating a weak association where students with a greater ability to understand their emotions may show slightly better performance on tasks requiring short-term memory.
The results confirm the existence of a statistically significant, albeit weak, relationship between Emotional Clarity and Immediate Auditory Memory, suggesting that individuals with a greater ability to identify, understand, and regulate their emotions tend to perform marginally better on memory tasks. This finding is consistent with previous studies that have highlighted the impact of emotional regulation on cognitive performance, especially in attention and memory processes (Mayer et al. 2008; Fernández-Berrocal and Extremera 2006).
From a neuroscientific perspective, the interrelation between emotions and memory has a well-documented biological basis. The limbic system, particularly the amygdala and hippocampus, plays a crucial role in both emotional processing and memory consolidation (Kandel et al. 2013). Research has shown that adequate emotional regulation facilitates the activation of neural networks that optimize working memory and short-term information retention (Immordino-Yang and Damasio 2007). The association observed in the present study was statistically significant but small in magnitude, indicating limited explanatory power and highlighting that other additional factors substantially influence auditory memory performance. However, it is crucial to interpret these findings with caution. Although the association reached statistical significance, the effect size was notably low, suggesting that Emotional Intelligence, specifically Emotional Clarity, accounts for only a very small proportion of variability in Immediate Auditory Memory. These results indicate that auditory memory is a highly complex cognitive process primarily driven by other factors not accounted for in this study, such as attentional capacity, phonological loop efficiency, or prior linguistic knowledge. Acknowledging this modest impact is essential to avoid overstating the role of emotional meta-knowledge in cognitive performance.
However, the fact that not all dimensions of Emotional Intelligence have shown a significant relationship with Immediate Auditory Memory indicates that not all emotional competencies influence cognitive performance equally. Previous studies have indicated that Emotional Attention, although important for emotional perception, may not be sufficient to improve memory if it is not accompanied by adequate emotional management (Gross 2014). Similarly, Emotional Repair, which involves the ability to modify negative emotional states, may be more closely related to emotional resilience than to performance on specific cognitive tasks (Zeidner and Roberts 2009).
From an educational perspective, these results reinforce the need to design pedagogical strategies that integrate the development of Emotional Intelligence into the school curriculum. Educational programs focused on emotional education have been shown to improve both students’ socio-emotional well-being and their academic performance (Durlak et al. 2011). The relationship between Emotional Clarity and Immediate Auditory Memory suggests that teachers can enhance performance on short-term memory tasks through strategies that promote emotional understanding in the classroom. Strategies such as teaching emotional awareness, fostering self-awareness, and developing emotional regulation skills can not only improve students’ emotional stability but also optimize their information processing and retention skills (Pekrun 2017).
These findings also have implications for the development of neuroeducation-based teaching methodologies, which combine knowledge about emotions and cognition to improve learning. Previous research has indicated that learning based on positive emotions facilitates information encoding and retrieval, which could partly explain the relationship observed in this study (Schneider 2018).
Although the modest effect size observed in this study limits the scope for direct practical recommendations, the integration of educational technology could be highlighted as a promising avenue to reinforce both emotional and cognitive competencies in future interventions. Digital cognitive training programs, such as gamified memory apps, may support auditory memory through adaptive challenges, while mindfulness or self-regulation applications could help students develop emotional clarity in real time.
Similarly, immersive technologies such as virtual and augmented reality may provide emotionally engaging environments where students must retain auditory instructions under controlled affective conditions, potentially enhancing both memory and regulation skills (Cabero-Almenara et al. 2023; Parong and Mayer 2018). Furthermore, digital assessment and learning analytics could enable teachers to simultaneously monitor memory performance and emotional responses, offering immediate feedback and fostering personalized interventions (Salinas and de Benito 2020; Siemens and Long 2011). Finally, advances in artificial intelligence open the door to intelligent tutoring systems that might be capable of adapting task difficulty to students’ emotional and cognitive states, potentially reducing frustration and supporting well-being (Holmes et al. 2021). However, these suggestions remain conceptual and require further empirical validation before they can be considered evidence-based applications.
Taken together, these perspectives suggest that technology, when meaningfully integrated into pedagogy, can act as a mediator between emotion and cognition, amplifying the educational impact of programs designed to strengthen Emotional Intelligence and Immediate Auditory Memory. Moreover, although the relationship identified between Emotional Clarity and Immediate Auditory Memory is statistically significant, the effect size observed in this study is small. This indicates that Emotional Clarity explains only a limited proportion of the variance in memory performance, suggesting that additional cognitive, socio-emotional, and contextual variables likely play a much more substantial role. For instance, factors such as executive functioning, attentional control, language abilities, and classroom climate have been shown to strongly influence auditory memory and might interact with emotional competencies in complex ways (Diamond 2013; Blair and Raver 2015). Future studies may benefit from incorporating these variables into multivariate or structural equation models to more precisely characterize the pathways linking emotion and memory during childhood.
Methodologically, it is also important to note that the associations reported in this study were examined using non-parametric correlation analyses, in accordance with the distributional characteristics of the data. Additional non-parametric tests (Mann–Whitney U and Kruskal–Wallis) were conducted to explore potential differences across gender and age groups. Although a gender difference emerged for Emotional Attention, this dimension was not significantly associated with Immediate Auditory Memory, suggesting that the main findings are unlikely to be driven by gender-related effects.
This study also presents several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, although the TMMS-24 has demonstrated adequate reliability in previous studies with comparable child and adolescent samples, the present study could not compute internal consistency coefficients (α and ω) due to the unavailability of item-level responses. This methodological constraint was identified and acknowledged during the study design and does not compromise the validated factorial structure of the instrument; however, it limits the assessment of reliability within the specific sample and should be addressed in future research by ensuring full access to item-level data.
Second, the cross-sectional design precludes any causal interpretation of the relationship between Emotional Clarity and Immediate Auditory Memory. Longitudinal or experimental designs would be necessary to determine whether improvements in emotional competencies actually lead to measurable gains in auditory memory performance. Third, the sample was composed of students from a single province in Spain, which may limit generalizability; expanding data collection to different regions, educational systems, and socio-economic contexts would provide a more comprehensive understanding of how these variables relate across diverse populations.
Despite these limitations, the present study contributes valuable insights to the growing literature on emotion–cognition interactions in school-aged children. By revealing even a modest link between Emotional Clarity and auditory memory, the findings underscore the importance of integrating emotional learning into everyday pedagogical practice (Benavidez V. and P. 2019). Classroom environments that encourage emotional reflection, self-awareness, and regulation may not only benefit students’ socio-emotional well-being but also enhance their capacity to process, hold, and retrieve auditory information—skills essential for academic success, especially in language-based and instruction-heavy subjects.
Finally, future research could explore intervention programs specifically designed to strengthen both emotional and cognitive processes simultaneously. Combining emotional literacy curricula with targeted auditory memory training—for example, through rhythmic repetition tasks, musical activities, or computerized auditory sequencing programs—may yield synergistic effects that surpass the impact of either approach in isolation. Such integrated interventions align with current neuroeducational perspectives emphasizing that learning is inherently multisystemic, shaped by the dynamic interaction between emotional, cognitive, and environmental factors. Understanding and leveraging this interaction represents a promising direction for both research and educational innovation.

5. Conclusions

The present study provides empirical evidence of a statistically significant but weak positive relationship between Emotional Clarity—a key dimension of Emotional Intelligence—and Immediate Auditory Memory in primary-school students aged 10–12 years. This modest association suggests that a greater ability to understand one’s emotions may be related to slightly better auditory information processing and short-term retention, while Emotional Attention and Emotional Repair showed no notable links. These findings align with neuroscientific evidence on limbic system involvement in emotion–memory interactions and highlight that emotional competencies influence cognitive performance differentially.
Although the small effect size limits direct practical applications, the results cautiously support incorporating emotional education in school curricula to enhance socio-emotional well-being and cognitive processing. Neuroeducation-based strategies and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)—including digital platforms for emotional self-regulation, gamified training, and immersive environments—emerge as conceptual proposals with potential to complement future interventions strengthening both emotional intelligence and auditory memory. However, empirical validation of such approaches is required, as the current study did not assess their effectiveness.
Key limitations include the correlational design (precluding causality), convenience sampling (restricting generalizability), lack of control for confounding variables (e.g., cognitive abilities, socio-economic status), and absence of a priori power analysis or multiple comparison corrections. Future research should employ longitudinal or experimental designs, more representative samples, and multivariate models to explore mediating or moderating factors and developmental changes in the emotion–memory relationship.
In summary, this work confirms a relevant, though modest, association between Emotional Clarity and Immediate Auditory Memory, underscoring the value of emotional education in primary schooling and opening avenues for interdisciplinary research on emotion, cognition, and educational technology in learning processes.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.M.-P. and M.V.F.-S.; methodology, R.M.-P. and A.P.-R.; software, R.M.-P.; validation, R.M.-P., A.R.-M. and M.V.F.-S.; formal analysis, R.M.-P. and A.R.-M.; investigation, R.M.-P.; resources, A.R.-M., M.V.F.-S.; data curation, R.M.-P. and A.R.-M.; writing—original draft preparation, R.M.-P.; writing—review and editing, A.P.-R., A.R.-M. and M.V.F.-S.; visualization, R.M.-P.; supervision, M.V.F.-S. and A.P.-R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board of the University of Seville (13 February 2013).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Table 1. Descriptive statistics.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics.
NMinimumMaximumAverageStandard Deviation
Immediate Auditory Memory17515.0085.0050.765712.05957
Emotional Attention1758.0036.0023.14295.34200
Emotional Clarity17512.0039.0026.51435.97010
Emotional Repair17512.0040.0028.73716.55301
N valid (per list)175
Table 2. Normality tests.
Table 2. Normality tests.
Kolmogorov–Smirnov aShapiro–Wilk
StatisticalglSig.StatisticalglSig.
Immediate Auditory Memory0.1031750.0000.9781750.008
Emotional Attention0.0781750.0110.9911750.327
Emotional Clarity0.0691750.0420.9861750.078
Emotional Repair0.1191750.0000.9601750.000
Note. a Lilliefors significance correction.
Table 3. Correlations.
Table 3. Correlations.
Correlations
Immediate Auditory MemoryEmotional AttentionEmotional ClarityEmotional Repair
Spearman’s rhoImmediate Auditory MemoryCorrelation Coefficient1.0000.1340.171 *0.102
Sig. (2-tailed)0.0000.0770.0240.180
N175175175175
Emotional AttentionCorrelation Coefficient0.1341.0000.1300.143
Sig. (2-tailed)0.077.0.0860.059
N175175175175
Emotional ClarityCorrelation Coefficient0.171 *0.1301.0000.501 **
Sig. (2-tailed)0.0240.086.0.000
N175175175175
Emotional RepairCorrelation Coefficient0.1020.1430.501 **1.000
Sig. (2-tailed)0.1800.0590.000.
N175175175175
*. The evaluation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. The evaluation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
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Muñoz-Pradas, R.; Romero-Morales, A.; Palacios-Rodríguez, A.; Fernández-Scagliusi, M.V. Emotional Intelligence, Immediate Auditory Memory, and ICT in Primary Education: A Neuroeducational Approach. Soc. Sci. 2026, 15, 58. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci15020058

AMA Style

Muñoz-Pradas R, Romero-Morales A, Palacios-Rodríguez A, Fernández-Scagliusi MV. Emotional Intelligence, Immediate Auditory Memory, and ICT in Primary Education: A Neuroeducational Approach. Social Sciences. 2026; 15(2):58. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci15020058

Chicago/Turabian Style

Muñoz-Pradas, Raquel, Alejandro Romero-Morales, Antonio Palacios-Rodríguez, and Mª Victoria Fernández-Scagliusi. 2026. "Emotional Intelligence, Immediate Auditory Memory, and ICT in Primary Education: A Neuroeducational Approach" Social Sciences 15, no. 2: 58. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci15020058

APA Style

Muñoz-Pradas, R., Romero-Morales, A., Palacios-Rodríguez, A., & Fernández-Scagliusi, M. V. (2026). Emotional Intelligence, Immediate Auditory Memory, and ICT in Primary Education: A Neuroeducational Approach. Social Sciences, 15(2), 58. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci15020058

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