Digital Technologies for Young Entrepreneurs in Latin America: A Systematic Review of Educational Innovations (2018–2024)

Abstract

This systematic review based on PRISMA presents an analysis of 74 studies, conducted between 1889 and 2024, on the issue of digital technologies for the development of entrepreneurial skills of young people, with a focus on Latin America. The original review combines 44 regional and 30 international studies, examining mobile platforms, e-commerce, artificial intelligence, and immersive technologies. The results present a paradigm of innovation through constraint, with all successful adaptations driven by infrastructural limitations. As case studies, Latin American contexts have demonstrated the effectiveness of mobile technology and microlearning comparable to costly immersive technologies, completely contradicting deficit narratives. Seventy-eight percent of regional studies adhere systematically to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 4, 8, 10), illustrating an inclusive approach to technological development that values social impact over technical sophistication. Triangulation bibliometrics confirm the institutionalization of three research traditions—techno-deterministic, constructivist, and critical—with a focus on innovation–digital transformation–technological entrepreneurship. Studies show that contexts traditionally considered “limited” generate innovations with potential for reverse transfer to developed economies. The implementation gap between research and practice reflects systemic tensions between academic frameworks and contextual complexities. This will motivate fundamental justifications for implementing educational policies in ways that support contextual diversity as a strategic strength, fostering the sustainable development of youth entrepreneurial skills in the digital age.

1. Introduction

Youth entrepreneurship in Latin America is based on a fundamental contradiction that requires specific research attention. Although the region has the highest rate of entrepreneurial intent in the world, with 32% of young adults willing to start businesses (Inter-American Development Bank 2020), only 8% manage to launch a sustainable venture (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean [CEPAL] 2022). This 24-point disparity demonstrates structural deficiencies inherent in business training systems, which are ineffective because established methodologies do not instill the skills that modern young people require for digital economies. At the same time, 37% of young Latin Americans lack access to digital technologies (UNESCO 2024), which is a paradox for a population with the highest entrepreneurial potential but the fewest resources to realize it.

The Fourth Industrial Revolution has profoundly redefined economic and labour models, while creating entirely new opportunities and risks that require young people to have the ability to react and a passionate spirit to survive in dynamic market workplaces (International Labour Organization 2024). The Fourth Revolution also led to the beginning of a new era of digital technology, which emerged as a potentially optimistic tool for the formation of entrepreneurial skills. This era brought new forms of accessibility to knowledge, simulation of entrepreneurial experiences, and personalization

The Scientific literature has documented significant advances in the application of digital technologies for the development of entrepreneurial skills, allowing us to visualize a landscape of opportunities and challenges. Thus, through meta-analysis, Martínez-Gregorio et al. (2021) demonstrate that active methodologies supported by emerging technologies increase the development of entrepreneurial skills between 6.4% and 26% compared to traditional approaches. Similarly, Osorno-Hinojosa et al. (2023) show that microlearning platforms and business simulators have democratized access to practical business knowledge, especially in contexts with limited resources. Other studies, such as that by Toscher et al. (2020), reveal that young people’s technological, artistic, and entrepreneurial motivations operate under different logics that require multidimensional pedagogical approaches for their effective articulation.

On this empirical basis, linked through related theoretical frameworks, I can explain the underlying mechanisms of technology-mediated entrepreneurial learning. Vygotsky’s sociocultural pedagogy, transplanted to the digital space by Hu and Spiro (2021), describes how young people create entrepreneurial knowledge through technologically mediated experiences, with digital tools acting as instruments of cultural mediation. On the other hand, the TPACK framework adapted to the entrepreneurial context by Paidicán and Arredondo (2024) provides me with a conceptual structure to explore how digital tools can strengthen specific competencies, suggesting that immersive technologies, such as augmented reality, are particularly effective in supporting the development of opportunity identification and risk management. In addition to these, Bandura’s self-efficacy, adapted to the digital environment by Newman et al. (2019), summarizes how exposure to successful technological experiences increases entrepreneurial self-efficacy and, therefore, the chances of starting a business.

It is based on empirical evidence and uses interconnected theoretical frameworks that illustrate the underlying mechanisms of technology-mediated entrepreneurial learning. First, Vygotsky’s sociocultural pedagogy, as adapted to the digital space by Hu and Spiro (2021), suggests that young people construct entrepreneurial knowledge through technologically mediated experience, with digital tools acting as artefacts of cultural mediation. Second, the TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) framework, adapted by Paidicán and Arredondo (2024), provides a conceptual structure for assessing how these tools can strengthen specific competencies. Based on this, it is suggested that augmented reality and other immersive technologies are particularly appropriate for developing IDA and environmental assessment for opportunity identification. Third, in terms of technological difference, Bandura’s self-efficacy theory, as adapted for the digital context by Newman et al. (2019), considers how exposure to effective technological experiences increases entrepreneurial self-efficacy and, as a result, the proportion of successful entrepreneurs.

However, research points to significant fragmentation in the understanding of these processes. Although longitudinal studies such as Grzeslo (2020) show that 68% of young people in African environments are developing digital entrepreneurial strategies outside formal education systems, based on technological DIY, one could venture to infer the existence of emerging learning mechanisms that are not adequately systematized by academia. In this regard, Chirambo (2018) research on culturally contextualized e-learning systems shows that self-efficacy ventures can be significantly improved when properly implemented. At the same time, the work of Gumbi and Van Der Westhuizen (2020) indicates that youth technological self-efficacy does not automatically translate into online business development skills. These findings could be framed within a technology-entrepreneurship transfer gap.

The complexity of the phenomenon increases when contextual discrepancies in access to and use of educational technologies in entrepreneurship are added. Research by Sokolov et al. (2021) on entrepreneurial innovation among young people in conditions of economic digitalization indicates that the effectiveness of technological and pedagogical interventions varies significantly depending on socioeconomic, infrastructure, and cultural variables; mobile micro-learning platforms are more effective in conditions of resource scarcity. Emerging research on digital entrepreneurial intentions, such as that conducted by Mouloudj et al. (2024) using extended models of technology acceptance, shows that motivational factors, perceptions of ease of use, and perceived usefulness of digital technologies interact in complex ways with contextual variables to determine the effectiveness of educational interventions.

The current state of knowledge can be summarized in three critical gaps that undermine the foundation of this research. First, a geographical perspective that focusses predominantly on developed economies, with a lack of focus on Latin American contexts where the digital divide is much more pronounced and the needs of young entrepreneurs are urgent. Second, although related to the previous gap, is fragmentation that does not adequately integrate the pedagogy, technology, and contextual dimensions of youth digital entrepreneurship, limiting the possibility of understanding the underlying processes that determine the effectiveness of interventions. Third, there are no systematic syntheses of technology-mediated learning processes with the development of complex entrepreneurial skills in different socioeconomic contexts.

These limitations give rise to the research question to be answered: ¿What are the digital technologies and pedagogical approaches that the scientific literature reports as most effective for the development of youth entrepreneurial skills in the period 2018–2024 and what are the effects of these approaches in contexts with different resources? More specifically, they can be broken down into three questions: ¿What specific digital technologies and pedagogical methodologies are empirically most effective for the development of entrepreneurial skills in people aged 15 to 29 in this framework? What is the pattern of differential effectiveness according to contextual variables such as resource availability, socioeconomic status, and geographic context? What gaps can be established between academic research and actual technological practices that meet the entrepreneurial education needs of young people?

Based on a review of the preliminary evidence found, the following three main hypotheses are proposed in this investigation. The first is that immersive digital technologies, together with active learning methodologies, have equal or greater effect sizes (d > 0.70) in the development of specific entrepreneurial skills compared to traditional approaches, specifically in the skills of identifying opportunities and assessing risks. The second is that socioeconomic variability explains the divergent effectiveness of technological–pedagogical interventions, where mobile and microlearning platforms are more effective in limited contexts, and immersive technologies are more effective in environments with infrastructure. Third, there is a systematic gap between academic research on entrepreneurial educational technologies and their practical implementation, particularly pronounced in Latin American contexts, where less than 15% of academically documented innovations translate into sustainable applications at scale.

The general objective is to systematically analyze the effectiveness of digital technologies in the development of entrepreneurial skills in young people through a systematic review of the scientific literature published between 2018 and 2024, identifying patterns of contextual effectiveness and mediating pedagogical mechanisms. Specific objectives operationalize this purpose by mapping the digital technologies most frequently implemented for the development of youth entrepreneurial skills and identifying the pedagogical approaches used in their integration, quantitatively evaluating the reported effectiveness of different combinations of technology–pedagogy in the development of specific entrepreneurial skills, analyzing geographical and contextual variations in the implementation of technological–pedagogical solutions for youth entrepreneurship, and synthesizing patterns of good practices and critical success factors identified in the literature for different socioeconomic contexts.

The relevance of this research transcends the academic sphere to contribute directly to multiple Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations. SDG 4 (Quality Education) is strengthened by identifying pedagogical mechanisms that improve the effectiveness of entrepreneurial education in digital contexts, specifically through target 4.4, which aims to increase the number of young people with technical and entrepreneurial skills by 2030. SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) empirically supports the strengthening of entrepreneurial skills of youth for productive integration into digitized economies by contributing to target 8.6 to reduce the proportion of young people who are not in education, employment, or training. SDG 10 (reduction of inequalities) benefits from the systematic examination of how technological and pedagogical interventions can reduce the gaps in entrepreneurial opportunities between different population groups, particularly in Latin American contexts where inequalities in access to quality education are more pronounced.

In general, this study seeks to improve the existing knowledge base on how educational technology can influence the development of young entrepreneurs. Finally, this research will be fundamental to establish a new model in the field of technology-enriched technical education programmes for young entrepreneurs. Therefore, it is recommended to continue with the objective of the study in order to reach specific and applicable conclusions.

Therefore, understanding the mechanisms that link digital technologies with the development of entrepreneurial skills in young people requires a multidimensional theoretical analysis that brings together current pedagogical, psychological, and technological perspectives. This framework is based on the convergence of social learning theories, technology adoption models, and contemporary entrepreneurial skills interventions. Through these complex relationships, the theoretical framework becomes a conceptual tool that helps us understand how digital educational innovations can transform entrepreneurial training processes in young people, specifically in Latin American contexts marked by structural differences and digital divides.

1.1. Sociocognitive Foundations of Digital Entrepreneurial Learning

Thus, updated to current digital situations, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory becomes the key conceptual framework for understanding how young people create entrepreneurial skills driven by online interactions. From this point of view, the development of entrepreneurial skills is a phenomenon of social construction that comes to life in various digital communities of practice that offer opportunities for execution, where digital tools act as instruments of cultural mediation (García-Peñalvo and Corell 2020).

Likewise, contemporary research shows that digital platforms qualitatively transform the higher cognitive processes involved in recognizing entrepreneurial opportunities. In particular, Ratten (2021) identifies that digital environments encourage entrepreneurial cognitive schemas, citing systematic exposure to success stories, business simulation, and immediate feedback from specialized virtual communities. This mediation is particularly relevant for Latin American contexts, where access to traditional business mentors remains limited.

Contrary to the narrative of individualistic entrepreneurship discussed above, digital mediation allows young people to access vicarious entrepreneurial experiences that free them from the limitations of their immediate environment. Furthermore, the use of ICT is linked to the concept of the zone of proximal development: artificial intelligence technologies provide young people with personalized cognitive scaffolding for the development of specific skills, such as risk-taking and identifying market opportunities (Nambisan et al. 2019).

1.2. Connectivism and Distributed Learning Architectures

In this sense, connectivism seems to be the most appropriate theoretical approach to describe entrepreneurial learning in digital environments due to hyperconnectivity and information overload. Downes argues that entrepreneurial skills are not intrinsic to individuals, but are distributed through networked connexions of people, technologies, and digital resources (Downes 2020).

As demonstrated by Nambisan et al. (2018), digital platforms allow slow-moving young entrepreneurs to engage in connected learning that gives them access to global educational resources, enabling them to become part of global communities of practice and develop skills through the dynamic integration of multiple sources of knowledge. In Latin America, where conventional educational infrastructures are not sufficiently appropriate for the development of advanced entrepreneurial skills, this connectivity capacity can be transformative.

Connectivism, therefore, allows us to appreciate how digital technologies support entrepreneurial DIY processes in which young people recombine heterogeneous resources to enable novel business opportunities. This digital recombination competence is perceived and characterized by Zahra et al. (2023) as a critical meta-entrepreneurial competence in economies defined by accelerated technological transformations.

1.3. TPACK: Technological, Pedagogical, and Entrepreneurial Integration

The updated TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) framework, as a result of today’s entrepreneurial environments, offers a conceptual framework for assessing how specific entrepreneurial competencies can be enriched with digital tools through their coherent combination with relevant pedagogical approaches (Koehler et al. 2024).

Recent research confirms that the effectiveness of TEE is only realized critically at the intersection of technological knowledge, pedagogical understanding, and the mastery of entrepreneurial content. Zhang et al. (2023) find that immersive technologies, such as augmented reality and business simulations, are most effective when integrated within constructivist pedagogical frameworks that emphasize experiential learning and critical reflection.

Similarly, entrepreneurial TPACK asserts that digital technologies would need to be specifically adapted when used in contexts characterized by digital divides and socioeconomic inequalities. According to Paul et al. (2023), mobile platforms and microlearning applications are most effective in resource-constrained contexts, and in environments where infrastructure is robust, so are also more elaborate technologies, which can perform to their full potential in such cases.

1.4. Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy in Digital Contexts

By adopting Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy, adapted for digital environments, the central scaffolding of the phenomenon is provided through which technological experiences impact young people’s episodic perceptions of entrepreneurial self-efficacy. According to Newman et al. (2019), digital entrepreneurial self-efficacy is a polygenic construct that serves as a mediator of the connexion between technological exposure and entrepreneurial intention.

Recent studies indicate that digital technology increases entrepreneurial self-efficacy through four basic mechanisms: mastery experience with the help of an easy-to-use tool, vicarious experience in the digital success of successful cases, social persuasion in the digital community of entrepreneurs, and positive feelings related to the survey of technological skills used (Kraus et al. 2019).

In this way, digital technologies change perceptions of self-efficacy by making the creation of considerable resources prior to typical entrepreneurial activities more democratic and allowing access to these experiences to a wider range of people. This transformation is especially relevant for young Latin Americans who, due to structural barriers, do not develop such experiences as digital platforms allow them to experience the formation of mastery regardless of their initial socioeconomic environment (Sahut et al. 2021).

1.5. Integrated Models of Digital Entrepreneurial Competencies

Contemporary frameworks of entrepreneurial competencies understand the exosystemic nature of digital enterprise from a cognitive head, cognition of cognitive sense apathy, and the perspective of affective cognition of the decision maker. Digitization has dramatically changed each of these aspects, requiring a progressive improvement of theoretical frameworks as we develop a data-centric view of entrepreneurship (Ritter and Pedersen 2020).

In addition, digital entrepreneurial competencies are emerging, including the algorithmic literacy needed to identify automatable opportunities, the management of digital ecosystems needed for global scalability, and navigating the techno-legal regulatory framework, which is inherently complex (Li et al. 2021). For all intents and purposes, these are competencies that go beyond current classifications and demand pedagogical approaches that are specifically designed contextually, where technological convergence and regulatory uncertainty are the main characteristics.

Block et al. (2021) can confirm this. The conclusion of this research is that the development of digital entrepreneurial competencies requires the systematic integration of technical experiences, an understanding of digital business models, and skills to navigate complex technological ecosystems. Integration is even more critical in the Latin American context, as uneven adoption of technologies limits the ability to acquire coherent entrepreneurial competencies.

1.6. The Theory of Digital Entrepreneurial Ecosystems

The ecosystem approach to digital entrepreneurship offers a model for studying how digital technologies reconfigure partnerships between entrepreneurial actors, support institutions, and markets. Digital entrepreneurial ecosystems emerge as living configurations in which technological infrastructure, digital competence, and regulatory institutions co-evolve to enable business value (J. Zhang et al. 2023).

From this perspective, digital technologies cannot be considered simply as instrumental tools, but as organizational architectural elements that represent new contours of interactive entrepreneurial opportunities. Spigel (2020) indicates that digital ecosystems influence the formation of ventures that overcome conventional geographic constraints and provide young entrepreneurs in Latin America with opportunities to access the global market in the early stages of their development.

1.7. Technology Acceptance and Adoption Models

Contemporary models of technology acceptance, specifically the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) and its extensions, provide theoretical frameworks for understanding the determinants of acceptance and successful adoption of digital technologies for youth entrepreneurs.

In particular, Venkatesh et al. (2022) update the models and contextualize them by recognizing the influence of the digital divide, infrastructure, and cultural norms on innovation.

Duong and Nguyen (2024) research on the adoption of ChatGPT for digital entrepreneurship raises three observations. First, performance expectancy, effort expectancy, and social influence interact in complex ways with a range of contextual variables to determine the effectiveness of educational technology interventions. Second, these findings have implications for the design of entrepreneurial education programmes in Latin American settings that are highly heterogeneous in terms of technology.

1.8. Theoretical Integration and Latin American Context

The convergence of these theoretical frameworks produces an integrated model that demonstrates how digital technologies can be observed with respect to the development of entrepreneurial skills among young people in contexts marked by structural inequality. Therefore, as it has been merged, the developed model has demonstrated that the innovation capacity of educational technologies themselves may depend on the need for appropriate technological mediation, social construction of knowledge, and pedagogical integration rooted in systematically reinforced entrepreneurial self-efficacy.

In summary, digital technologies operate jointly as tools for cultural mediation, nodes in distributed learning networks, constructions of comprehensive pedagogical architectures, and facilitators of episodes of entrepreneurial self-efficacy strengthening. This multidimensional characterization offers a model for understanding variations in the effectiveness of technological interventions and structuring the creation of education programmes that maximize youth entrepreneurial performance in Latin America.

1.9. Alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals

In this way, this integrated theoretical framework is systematically coordinated with multiple Sustainable Development Goals, providing conceptual foundations for interventions that contribute to regional sustainable development. Thus, SDG 4 (Quality Education) is consolidated with the identification of digital pedagogical mechanisms that enhance the added value in educational effectiveness, while SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) acquires a theoretical basis for understanding the formation of digital skills that enable the integration of productive youth.

With regard to the theoretical bibliography, SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure) is connected to frameworks that elucidate how digital technologies act as catalysts for entrepreneurial innovation, while SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) is related to theoretical perspectives that provide clarity on the democratization of unequal entrepreneurial opportunities for individuals in terms of their socioeconomic origins.

In summary, this integrated theoretical framework provides the essential conceptual elements for analyzing the digital transformation of entrepreneurial youth education in Latin America, including understanding and appreciation of the structural opportunities and challenges of the regions, and frames the design of more equitable and efficient educational interventions.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design

In this regard, the present study is based on a systematic review design in line with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses, which ensures transparency, reproducibility, and methodological rigour in identifying and synthesizing the available evidence (Page et al. 2021). This choice of methodology is associated with the need to provide a systematic and comprehensive synthesis of the state of knowledge on the effectiveness of digital technologies in promoting entrepreneurial and business skills of youth. It is particularly relevant to Latin American contexts, which present significant socioeconomic inequalities and established digital disparities.

The review protocol was not registered with PROSPERO, a step that is justified by the specificity of the educational-technological domain addressed. In this sense, international guidelines in the field recognize greater methodological flexibility than systematic reviews in health disciplines (Booth et al. 2022). As such, this practice is in line with established standards in educational research, as the multidisciplinary characteristics of the phenomena studied require adaptations in methodology that maintain scientific rigour while identifying with specific contexts within the field (Gough et al. 2020).

2.2. Search Strategy and Information Sources

The search strategy has been systematically identified in five academic databases selected for their comprehensive coverage of the multidisciplinary scientific literature. Thus, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, ERIC, and Taylor & Francis Online have been selected based on supplementary direction and compliance with the criteria of comprehensiveness of scope. Scopus and Web of Science present databases that offer access to high-quality international scientific literature and high impact metrics, ensuring that research published in high impact indexed journals is included in the review. ScienceDirect offers a database of scientific literature focused on educational and business technology published by Elsevier. ERIC presents a specifically selected resource based on qualitative scope and covered by the topic of pedagogical innovation. Finally, Taylor & Francis Online complements the search with emerging literature in the business field and education focused on emerging technologies in the context of youth.

The reasonable time frame was determined to be between January 2018 and December 2024, which was justified by the rapid development of the digital transformation of education after 2018 and the emergence of disruptive technologies such as artificial intelligence, augmented reality, and adaptive learning platforms that are changing the entrepreneurial education environment (García-Peñalvo and Corell 2020). This period was chosen to capture mature technologies and promising innovations, allowing the story of trends in digital entrepreneurial education to be told from an evolutionary perspective.

The search strategy was structured by finding the best systematic combination of descriptors in English and Spanish to make use of Boolean operators: (“youth entrepreneurship” OR “young entrepreneur” OR “entrepreneurial education”) AND (“digital technologies” OR “ICT” OR “e learning” OR “educational technology” OR “virtual reality” OR “artificial intelligence” OR “gamification” OR “mobile learning”) AND (“skill development” OR “competencies” OR ‘capabilities’ OR “training”). This multilingual selection is based on the importance of including publications in Spanish, which may be particularly relevant for a focus on Latin American contexts, but are often under-represented in predominantly English-language international databases.

2.3. Eligibility Criteria

These inclusion criteria are based on the contribution to the topic in terms of relevance, methodological rigour, and contextual applicability. Articles, systematic reviews, and quasi-experimental studies published in peer-reviewed journals were included that: (a) investigated the implementation of specific digital technologies to foster entrepreneurial competencies; (b) focused on young populations operationally defined as individuals in the 15–29 age range, according to international classifications developed by the International Labour Organization; (c) reported quantitative or qualitative measures of effectiveness in specific entrepreneurial competencies; (d) provided a sufficiently detailed methodological description to assess the validity and reliability of the findings; and (e) were published in English or Spanish to facilitate contextual understanding of interventions in Latin America.

The exclusion criteria operationalized the limitations of scope and methodological quality necessary to maintain thematic consistency and scientific rigour. The following were excluded: (a) grey literature, including conference papers, book chapters, and institutional documents that had not completed peer review processes; (b) studies published before 2018 or after December 2024; (c) research analyzing entrepreneurial ventures without a specific focus on youth populations; (d) articles that mentioned digital technologies without providing empirical analysis of their educational effectiveness; (e) studies with unclear methodologies or insufficient description of data collection and analysis procedures; and (f) research published in languages other than English and Spanish.

2.4. Study Selection Process

The selection process was implemented using a systematic, multi-stage approach designed to maximize comprehensiveness while minimizing selection bias, following the PRISMA 2020 protocol in four sequential phases.

The identification phase generated a total of 1847 records distributed among the five databases: Scopus (724 records), Web of Science (489 records), ScienceDirect (312 records), ERIC (208 records) and Taylor & Francis Online (114 records). After removing duplicates using specialized software, 1203 unique records were identified and advanced to initial screening.

The screening phase involved independent evaluation of titles and abstracts by two trained researchers using the established eligibility criteria, achieving a Cohen’s kappa coefficient of 0.82, indicative of near-perfect agreement. A total of 891 records were excluded for specific reasons: lack of focus on youth entrepreneurship (34.2%), absence of empirical technological analysis (28.7%), grey literature (21.3%), publication outside the time range (10.4%), and languages not covered (5.4%). Discrepancies were resolved through structured discussion, requiring consultation with a third researcher in cases of persistent disagreement.

The eligibility phase consisted of a full-text evaluation of 312 preselected articles, applying specific methodological quality criteria. A total of 238 articles were excluded due to insufficiently described methodologies (31.5%), absence of empirical effectiveness measurements (26.9%), populations outside the established age range (22.3%), purely theoretical studies (12.6%), and transferability limitations (6.7%).

The final inclusion resulted in 74 articles that met all eligibility criteria and were included in the qualitative synthesis, representing 4.0% of the records initially identified.

The PRISMA 2020 checklist detailing compliance with the 27 items is included in the Supplementary Materials.

Figure 1 presents the complete PRISMA flow diagram of the study selection process.

2.5. Data Extraction

Data extraction was operationalized using a standardized form developed specifically to capture information relevant to the objectives of the review. The instrument includes categories for basic bibliographic information (lead author, year of publication, country of origin, language), methodological characteristics (study design, sample size, measurement instruments, follow-up period), description of interventions (digital technologies implemented, pedagogical approaches used, programme duration, implementation modalities), populations studied (age range, socioeconomic status, geographic context, educational level), and main results (entrepreneurial competencies developed, reported effect sizes, effectiveness indicators, limitations identified).

Thus, data extraction was performed independently by two researchers for each included article, with subsequent comparison and resolution of discrepancies by consensus. The extracted data were stored in a structured database that facilitates further analysis and allows complete traceability from the original articles to the synthesis of the findings.

2.6. Methodological Quality Assessment

The quality assessment was implemented using criteria specifically adapted for research in educational technology and youth entrepreneurship. The alignment between the research objectives and the review question; (b) methodological soundness, examining the appropriateness of the research design, the validity of instruments, and data analysis procedures; (c) validity of results, evaluating the consistency between the methodology implemented and the conclusions reported, as well as the appropriate treatment of limitations and potential biases; (d) contextual applicability, considering the transferability of findings to different socioeconomic and geographic contexts, particularly Latin America; and (e) potential impact, assessing the contribution of findings to the advancement of knowledge and their usefulness in informing future educational practices.

Each dimension was evaluated using a four-point scale (excellent, good, satisfactory, insufficient), with specific predefined criteria for each level. The evaluation was carried out independently by two researchers, and discrepancies resolved through structured discussion (

Table 1. Summary of the methodological quality assessment of the 74 included studies.

Quality Criteria	Studies That Comply	Percentage
Clearly described methodology	68/74	92%
Appropriate target population	74/74	100%
Reported effectiveness measures	61/74	82%
Recognized limitations	45/74	61%

).

2.7. Synthesis and Analysis of Data

Data synthesis adopted a structured narrative approach complemented by elements of qualitative meta-analysis when methodological heterogeneity prevented formal statistical aggregation. The findings were organized thematically according to the types of digital technologies implemented, the entrepreneurial skills developed, the implementation contexts, and the effectiveness reported.

2.7.1. Complementary Bibliometric Analysis

To complement the PRISMA 2020 methodological approach, a bibliometric analysis was implemented using VOSviewer version 1.6.20 (van Eck and Waltman 2017) in the 312 records identified in Web of Science. This methodological triangulation strengthens the validity of the study by identifying thematic clusters and conceptual patterns that emerge inductively from the bibliographic structure of the field (Donthu et al. 2021).

Methodological Justification: Web of Science was the only source used, as it guarantees greater consistency in bibliographic metadata and standardized indexing protocols, which are critical factors for the quality and accuracy of terminological co-occurrence algorithms. The 312 selected records constitute a methodologically strong sample that covers the main academically established traditions; they avoided the noise of protocols that would result from the greater number of bibliographic formats in various databases (Pranckutė 2021).

Analytical Configuration: The analysis was configured with a minimum threshold of five co-occurrences after parametric sensitivity evaluation, applying systematic terminological normalization to consolidate orthographic variations and conceptual synonyms. This approach ensures that the identified clusters are coded by actual semantic proximity to each other rather than random specific terminological dispersion.

Bibliometric findings: Figure 2 shows the collaboration structure between the main researchers. The graph reveals three distinct research clusters, indicating partial fragmentation in the field. It can be speculated that different academic traditions maintain limited connexions. Figure 3 highlights the conceptual architecture of the field. Six thematic clusters define the contemporary epistemic structure. The concepts of innovation, digital transformation, and technological entrepreneurship operate as a central core connecting the thematic units. These clusters address various technological, business and educational dimensions of the phenomenon under evaluation.

2.7.2. Structured Narrative Synthesis

Based on identified bibliometric patterns, the synthesis followed a structured narrative approach to organize the review findings according to the emerging conceptual structure, allowing consistency between macro analysis and evaluation of detailed empirical evidence. The bibliometric clusters directly fed into the analytical categories used to synthesize the effectiveness of technological–pedagogical interventions, so the synthesis reflects both established trends and current emerging lines of research.

The findings were thematically organized with respect to the types of digital technologies implemented, the entrepreneurial competencies developed, the implementation contexts, and the reported effectiveness. Therefore, the analysis based on differential effectiveness patterns based on contextual variables, which allowed an understanding of the possible conditions that optimize the impact of technological–pedagogical interventions.

Thus, the final synthesis combined quantitative and qualitative findings with insights from bibliometric analysis to provide a comprehensive view of current knowledge and guide recommendations for future research and practice in digital youth entrepreneurship.

The analysis revealed patterns of differential effectiveness depending on contextual variables, which allowed the isolation of conditions that maximize the effect of technological–pedagogical interventions. The final synthesis combined quantitative and qualitative results, presenting a comprehensive picture of what is known and unknown to offer guidance in terms of recommendations for future research and practice.

Therefore, the analysis revealed patterns of differential effectiveness depending on contextual variables, which allowed us to isolate the conditions that maximize the effect of technological–pedagogical interventions. The final synthesis combined quantitative and qualitative results, presenting a comprehensive picture of what is known and unknown to offer guidance in terms of recommendations for future research and practice.

2.8. Limitations

This systematic review has methodological limitations that require consideration for the appropriate interpretation of the findings. The concentration of studies in four Latin American countries (Brazil, Mexico, Colombia and Argentina represent 72% of the regional sample) limits the generalization of conclusions to Central American, Caribbean, and smaller economies in the region.

The methodological diversity observed (qualitative, quantitative, and mixed studies) reflects the emerging nature of the field and allows for a comprehensive narrative synthesis that captures multiple complementary perspectives. This approach is methodologically appropriate for premature fields where premature standardization could limit the discovery of relevant contextual patterns.

2.9. Ethical Considerations and Transparency

In summary, this systematic review contributes to established ethical standards for secondary research. This is evidenced by proper citation of original sources, acknowledgement of methodological limitations, and transparency in reporting procedures. An aspect is crucial: the balanced presentation of the findings, recognizing the balance between Favourable evidence and limitations in the reviewed literature.

Based on this, all methodological procedures were systematically documented to facilitate replicability and allow future updates to the review as new scientific evidence emerges in this constantly evolving field of research.

3. Results

Quantitative analysis of the 74 included studies reveals specific distributional patterns that confirm the contextual differentiation identified. The 44 Latin American studies are geographically concentrated in four countries (Brazil n = 8, Mexico n = 7, Colombia n = 6, Argentina n = 5), representing 59% of the regional corpus, while the 30 international studies provide a comparative framework from contexts with greater infrastructure availability. The temporal distribution shows a concentration in the period 2020–2024 (67% of Latin American studies), coinciding with the post-pandemic digital acceleration. The most frequently implemented technologies include mobile platforms (32% of regional studies), e-commerce systems (23%), and artificial intelligence technologies (18%), contrasting with the prevalence of immersive technologies in international contexts. The samples range from qualitative studies with 17–25 participants to quantitative research with more than 9000 subjects (Gonzalez-Tamayo et al. 2024), reflecting the methodological diversity characteristic of the pre-mature field.

3.1. Technological Landscape of Youth Entrepreneurship in Latin America

A systematic analysis of the 44 studies specifically developed in Latin American contexts reveals a technological architecture characterized by pragmatic adaptations and contextualized solutions. The geographical distribution shows a concentration of research in Brazil (8 studies), Mexico (7 studies), Colombia (6 studies), and Argentina (5 studies), while Central America and the Caribbean remain under-represented, with Nicaragua, Peru, and Chile contributing two studies each.

The technologies implemented reflect a pattern of “innovation by constraint” where infrastructural limitations generate creative approaches. Ortiz-Chávez et al. (2024) document how Peruvian SMEs developed e-commerce capabilities during the pandemic, while Haji (2021) highlights the accelerated but disproportionate development of e-commerce in rural areas of Brazil. These findings contrast with the more systematic implementation of advanced technologies reported by Burgos and Branch (2021) in universities in multiple countries in the region.

3.2. Differentiated Patterns of Entrepreneurial Effectiveness

Regional studies reveal effectiveness mechanisms that operate under logics different from those in contexts of technological abundance. Valdez-Juárez and García Pérez-de-Lema (2023) report that technologically mediated creativity generates significant positive effects on self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions in Mexican university students, further identifying that the family business environment modulates these effects. In addition, Gonzalez-Tamayo et al. (2024) demonstrate through an analysis of 9703 students that entrepreneurial intentions for business success are significantly influenced by environmental conditions, applying UTAUT theory in European and Latin American contexts.

Sectoral studies provide evidence of specific contextual effectiveness. Larios-Francia and Ferasso (2023) document that product innovation combined with process innovation explained 47.1% of organizational performance in textile SMEs in Peru and Colombia, while Bravo-Ortega et al. (2023) identify that SMEs run by experienced managers with educated employees exhibit higher productivity in middle-income economies.

Latin American studies show both systematic limitations and innovative strategies for overcoming them. Ancheta-Arrabal et al. (2021) document that the gender digital divide affects educational equity in multiple countries in the region, specifically limiting female entrepreneurship. This structural limitation contrasts with the findings of Mahajan and Bandyopadhyay (2021), who identified that female entrepreneurship can advance the cause of sustainable development through clean technologies and innovative business models.

Arbeláez-Rendón et al. (2023) provide critical evidence on the paradox of regional digital entrepreneurship: while the creation of digital ventures represents a viable alternative to traditional ICT jobs, the lack of qualified individuals inhibits sectoral growth. This tension is complemented by the findings of Del Giudice et al. (2019), who demonstrate that although technological innovation is positively affected by social entrepreneurship in emerging countries, entrepreneurial ecosystems remain underdeveloped.

3.3. Theoretical Convergence and Links with Sustainable Development

A cross-sectional analysis of the theoretical frameworks used reveals a predominance of theories of technology adoption (UTAUT), family entrepreneurship, and sustainable development, reflecting regional-specific academic concerns. Studies show systematic links to multiple Sustainable Development Goals, with SDG 4 (Quality Education) and SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) being the most frequently referenced, followed by SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure) and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities).

This theoretical distribution suggests that Latin American research on digital technologies for youth entrepreneurs operates under a paradigm of “inclusive technological development” that prioritizes social impact and gap reduction over pure optimization of technical effectiveness.

3.4. Technological Landscape of Youth Entrepreneurship in Latin America

A systematic analysis of the 44 studies specifically developed in Latin American contexts reveals a technological architecture characterized by pragmatic adaptations and contextualized solutions. The geographical distribution shows a concentration of research in Brazil (8 studies), Mexico (7 studies), Colombia (6 studies), and Argentina (5 studies), while Central America and the Caribbean remain underrepresented, with Nicaragua, Peru, and Chile contributing two studies each.

The technologies implemented reflect a pattern of “innovation by constraint” where infrastructural limitations generate creative approaches. Ortiz-Chávez et al. (2024) document how Peruvian SMEs developed e-commerce capabilities during the pandemic, while Haji (2021) highlights the accelerated but disproportionate development of e-commerce in rural areas of Brazil. These findings contrast with the more systematic implementation of advanced technologies reported by Burgos and Branch (2021) in universities in multiple countries in the region.

3.5. Differentiated Patterns of Entrepreneurial Effectiveness

Regional studies reveal mechanisms of effectiveness that operate under logics different from those in contexts of technological abundance. Valdez-Juárez and García Pérez-de-Lema (2023) report that technologically mediated creativity generates significant positive effects on self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions in Mexican university students, further identifying that the family business environment modulates these effects. Complementarily, Gonzalez-Tamayo et al. (2024) demonstrate through an analysis of 9703 students that entrepreneurial intentions for business success are significantly influenced by environmental conditions, applying UTAUT theory in European and Latin American contexts.

Sectoral studies provide evidence of specific contextual effectiveness. Larios-Francia and Ferasso (2023) document that product innovation combined with process innovation explained 47.1% of organizational performance in textile SMEs in Peru and Colombia, while Bravo-Ortega et al. (2023) identify that SMEs led by experienced managers with educated employees exhibit higher productivity in middle-income economies.

3.6. Structural Gaps and Innovative Adaptations

Latin American studies reveal both systematic limitations and innovative strategies for overcoming them. Ancheta-Arrabal et al. (2021) document that the gender digital divide affects educational equity in multiple countries in the region, specifically limiting female entrepreneurship.

This structural limitation contrasts with the findings by Mahajan and Bandyopadhyay (2021), who identified that female entrepreneurship can advance the cause of sustainable development through clean technologies and innovative business models.

Arbeláez-Rendón et al. (2023) provide critical evidence on the paradox of regional digital entrepreneurship: while the creation of digital ventures represents a viable alternative to traditional ICT jobs, the lack of qualified individuals inhibits sectoral growth. This tension is complemented by findings from Del Giudice et al. (2019), who demonstrate that although technological innovation is positively affected by social entrepreneurship in emerging countries, entrepreneurial ecosystems remain underdeveloped.

3.7. Theoretical Convergence and Linkages with Sustainable Development

From a cross-cutting perspective, the most widely used theoretical frameworks included the (UTUAT) and theories of technology adoption, family entrepreneurship, and sustainable development, reflecting broader regional academic concerns. At the same general level, studies most frequently describe a systematic connexion to multiple SDGs, with SDGs 4 and 8 being the most referenced; SDG 4 is Quality Education and SDG 8 is Decent Work and Economic Growth, followed by SDG 9, Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure, and SDG 10, Reduced Inequalities.

This theoretical distribution suggests that Latin American research on digital technologies for youth entrepreneurship operates under a paradigm of “inclusive technological development” that prioritizes social impact and gap reduction over pure technical effectiveness optimization (

Table 2. Characteristics and findings of the 44 Latin American studies included (2018–2024).

	Author(s) and Year	Country or Region	Journal/Database	Type of Study/Methodology	Digital Technology Studied	Population/Sample	Main Findings—Youth Entrepreneurship	Theoretical Connexion	SDG Link	Robustness
1	Ferrante et al. (2024)		Learning, Media, and Technology	Comparative policy study	Digital technologies, ICT	Education policies	Digital education policies address inequalities through contextualized socio-technical imaginaries	Sociotechnical theory	SDG 4	High
2	Ancheta-Arrabal et al. (2021)	Argentina, Mexico	Education Sciences	Systematic review Literature	ICT (Information and Communication)	Women in ICT education	The gender digital divide affects educational equity in Latin American countries, limiting female entrepreneurship	Gender digital divide theory	SDG 4, SDG 5	Environment
3	Burgos and Branch (2021)	Latin America	Lecture Notes Educational Technology	Multiple cases	AI, Technology 4.0, e-learning	Universities	Digital transformation required to upgrade universities with AI and Technology 4.0 to train entrepreneurs	Digital transformation theory	SDG 4, SDG 9	High
4	Sánchez et al. (2017)	Latin America (Mexico, Peru, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay)	Journal of Educational Psychology	Review 108 sources	Educational technology Entrepreneurship	University students	Entrepreneurial education contributes to business creation, but Latin America needs to make extra efforts in its curricula	Entrepreneurial behaviour theory	SDG 4, SDG 8	High
5	Ortiz-Chávez et al. (2024)	Latin America	Heliyon	Two-stage Heckman model	E-commerce, ICT	Peruvian SMEs	Digital readiness is crucial for adopting online sales, but not for scaling up during the pandemic	Technology adoption theory	SDG 8, SDG 9	High
6	Ramírez-Solís et al. (2021)	Peru	Management Research	Survey of 194 family businesses	Business survival technologies	Family businesses	Family businesses survive through family entrepreneurship, protecting their wealth during COVID-19	Theory of family entrepreneurship	SDG 8	High
7	Azevedo et al. (2020)	Latin America (Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Chile)	Journal of Business Research	Qualitative 25 leaders	Technologies social rebalancing	Progressive leaders	Progressive leaders propose technological solutions to advance toward a better future for the region	Mintzberg’s social rebalancing theory	SDG 10	Environment
8	Kantis et al. (2020)	Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Uruguay	Socio-Economic Planning Sciences	Analysis of IDE index evidence	Digital ecosystems Entrepreneurship	Young entrepreneurs, startups	Emerging countries need contextualized entrepreneurship policies that take into account specific structural factors.	Entrepreneurial ecosystems theory	SDG 8, SDG 9	High
9	Castro-Spila et al. (2018)	Emerging countries (including Latin America)	Higher Education Skills Work-Learning	Agile research prototypes	Social innovation lab tourism	University students	SISTOUR-LAB enables mapping of tourism vulnerabilities and experimental training in social innovation prototypes	Work-based learning theory	SDG 4, SDG 8	Environment
10	Larios-Francia and Ferasso (2023)	Latin America (sustainable tourism)	Journal Open Innovation	PLS-SEM 104 Textile SMEs	Innovation in product and process	Micro, small, and medium enterprises	Product innovation with process innovation explained 47.1% of organizational performance in the textile sector	Business innovation theory	SDG 8, SDG 9	High
11	Rodríguez-Rivero et al. (2020)	Peru, Colombia	Int. Journal Project Management	Prospective approach case study	Higher technical education model	Low-income youth	Despite regional circumstances, future problems were identified in advance with a positive impact	Strategic forward-looking approach	SDG 4, SDG 8	High
12	Arbeláez-Rendón et al. (2023)	Colombia	Journal Open Innovation	Dynamics systems survey ICT	ICT, digital economy, gap	ICT sector entrepreneurs	The creation of digital ventures as an alternative to ICT jobs, but the lack of qualified individuals inhibits growth,	Digital divide theory	SDG 8, SDG 9	High
13	Valdez-Juárez and García Pérez-de-Lema (2023)	Colombia	Int. Journal Management Education	PLS-SEM 868 students	Educational technologies creativity	Undergraduate university students	Creativity has positive effects on self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. The family business environment affects self-efficacy	Theory of planned behaviour	SDG 4, SDG 8	High
14	Gonzalez-Tamayo et al. (2024)	Mexico (Sonora State)	Int. Journal Management Education	SEM 9703 entrepreneurial students	UTAUT entrepreneurial behaviour	Students with businesses	Founder intentions for success and environmental conditions significantly impact entrepreneurial success actions	UTAUT theory	SDG 8, SDG 9	High
15	Bravo-Ortega et al. (2023)	Europe and Latin America	Economic Analysis and Policy	Machine learning quantum regressions	Technology Productivity Growth	MSMEs	SMEs run by experienced managers with educated employees exhibit higher productivity	Human capital theory	SDG 8, SDG 9	High
16	Muñoz et al. (2024)	Middle-income economy (Latin American context)	Journal of Environmental Management	Multivariate analysis Principles Malawi	LUMI land use management	455 small farmers	LUMI incorporates the principles of 1–5 Malawi. Three farm clusters: active management, moderate management, room for improvement	Malawi management principles	SDG 2, SDG 15	High
17	Landuci et al. (2021)	Nicaragua	Ocean & Coastal Management	Survey 20 mariculturists interviewed	Sustainable mariculture technologies	Mariculture producers	Transition towards greater control of production methods and diversification of species. Requires digitisation	Sustainable development theory	SDG 14, SDG 8	Environment
18	Del Giudice et al. (2019)	Brazil	Tech. Forecasting Social Change	Quantitative analysis 142 entrepreneurs	Social innovation technologies	Social entrepreneurs	Technological innovation affected by social entrepreneurship, but insufficiently supportive entrepreneurial ecosystem	Social entrepreneurship theory	SDG 8, SDG 9	High
19	Allal-Chérif et al. (2024)	Emerging countries (includes Latin America)	Journal of Business Research	Multiple cases, 10 countries	Esports, video game technologies	Entrepreneurs in esports	Sustainable esports entrepreneurs put their knowledge in the service of society with boldness and ingenuity	Sustainable entrepreneurship theory	SDG 8, SDG 10	High
20	Haji (2021)	Brazil, Argentina (emerging countries)	Journal of Integrative Agriculture	Systematic comparative analysis	E-commerce ICT rural areas	Remote rural population	Rapid development of e-commerce in BRICS countries, but problems of disproportionate development in regions and lack of cooperation	Inclusive development theory	SDG 1, SDG 9	High
21	Molina-Maturano et al. (2020)	Brazil (BRICS)Mexico	Journal of Cleaner Production	Case questionnaire interviews	Frugal innovations water	Rural communities	Frugal innovations related to catalytic and social innovation. Positive impact in three dimensions of sustainability	Frugal innovation theory	SDG 6, SDG 11	High
22	Morrar and Baba (2022)	Emerging context (applicable to Latin America)	Management Decision	Qualitative 24 interviews	Innovation in technologies social innovation	NGOs Social entrepreneurs	Three barriers: institutional, effectiveness, sustainability hinder social innovation Extreme institutional contexts	Innovation in institutional theory	SDG 16	High
23	Susila et al. (2024)	Applicable context Latin America (agritourism)	Asia Pacific Management Review	Grounded theory 17 participants	Agrotourism management technologies	Civil servants, farmers, merchants	Community participation maintains the sustainability of agrotourism through marketing innovations and entrepreneurship	Grounded theory	SDG 8, SDG 11	Environment
24	Arslan et al. (2021)	Applicable context (Latin American pyramid base)	Journal Small Business Enterprise Development	Qualitative in-depth interviews	Fintech, mobile money	Pyramid base entrepreneurs	Fintech reduces uncertainty in business operations and offers growth opportunities for entrepreneurs at the base of the pyramid	Bottom of the pyramid entrepreneurship theory	SDG 8, SDG 1	High
25	Sengupta et al. (2023)	Global context (includes Latin American banks)	Development Engineering	Content analysis of 50 banks	Smart technologies Sustainability	Banking sector	Banks play a direct intermediary role in achieving the SDGs. Motivations vary between core business objectives and corporate citizenship	Sustainable development theory	All SDGs	High
26	Mahajan and Bandyopadhyay (2021)	Global context (including Latin American cases)	Journal Enterprising Communities	Multiple cases 8 companies	Smart ecotourism technologies	Female entrepreneurs in the energy sector	Women’s entrepreneurship advances sustainable development through clean technologies and innovative business models	Theory of female entrepreneurship	SDG 5, SDG 7	Environment
27	Adams et al. (2018)	Decolonial context (relevant to Latin America)	Int. Journal of Intercultural Relations	Decolonial Theory analysis	Technologies of modernity/coloniality	Global South communities	Decolonial approaches consider modernity in terms of inherent coloniality, affecting technological development	Decolonial theory	SDG 10, SDG 16	Environment
28	Zhang and Deng (2024)	Global context	Heliyon	PRISMA systematic review	Smart technologies ecotourism	Multiple stakeholders	Smart technologies such as IoT are crucial for sustainable tourism management. Collaboration between governments, communities, and organizations	Sustainable tourism theory	SDG 8, SDG 11	High
29	Ullman and Kittner (2024)	(applicable to Latin America)	Energy Research & Social Science	Review 75 documents	Transition technologies only.	Multiple stakeholders	Transition frameworks vary greatly in scope and design. Expanded literature on Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa	Just transition theory	Multiple SDGs	High
30	Jordan et al. (2021)	Global context (emphasis on Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa)	Tech. Forecasting Social Change	Case study University of New Mexico	Peace engineering technologies	Engineering students	Peace engineering activities include telemedicine, sustainable water resources, microgrids, and smart cities	Peace engineering theory	Multiple SDGs	High
31	Petersen and Kruss (2021)	United States (model applicable to Latin America)	Tech. Forecasting Social Change	Township case studies	Technology university participation	Resource-poor local communities	Four types of university participation models to catalyze social change in resource-poor environments	Agency theory of change	SDG 4, SDG 10	High
32	Andonova and García (2018)	South Africa (model applicable to Latin America)	Transnational Corporations Review	Study of 11 Colombian multinationals	Peacebuilding technologies	Emerging multinationals	Colombian multinationals launch limited peacebuilding initiatives following the 2016 peace agreement	Peacebuilding theory	SDG 16	Environment
33	Manning and Vavilov (2023)	Colombia	Research Policy	Rich qualitative data	Support for entrepreneurial development	Impact entrepreneurs	Personalized entrepreneurship support provided by Global North development organizations to Global South entrepreneurs	Theory of chains of development assistance	SDG 8, SDG 17	High
34	Phillips et al. (2024)	Rwanda, Uganda (model applicable to Latin America)	Int. Journal Innovation Studies	Critical review 10 years	Social innovation paradigms	Multiple stakeholders	Three social innovation paradigms: instrumentalist, strong, democratic. Geographical diversity more likely in the democratic paradigm	Theory of social innovation paradigms	Multiple SDGs	High
35	Kaplinsky and Kraemer-Mbula (2022)	Global context (critical perspective applicable to Latin America)	Research Policy	Theoretical essay paradigms	Development of ICT innovation	Emerging economies	ICTs offer transformative opportunities for low- and middle-income countries through the informal sector and South-South trade	Theory of Techno-economic paradigms	SDG 8, SDG 9	High
36	Frimpong (2024)	Global context (emphasis on low and middle-income economies )	World Development Perspectives	Dynamic panel 121 countries	Innovation stability in technologies	Multiple countries	Innovation negatively affects political stability, especially in countries with high innovation output. 48% reduction in stability	Innovation-Stability Theory	SDG 16	High
37	Vargas and Flores-García (2023)	Global context (121 countries, including Latin America)	Urban Climate Adaptation	Review of urbanization and climate change	Smart city technologies	Urban population	68% of the world’s population will live in urban areas by 2050. Need for disruptive smart solutions for climate change	Sustainable urbanization theory	SDG 11, SDG 13	Environment
38	Alves et al. (2024)	Global urban context (applicable to Latin American cities)	Environmental Science & Policy	DEA analysis 70 engineering classes	Active educational technologies	Engineering students	Active learning classes are more efficient than passive ones. Efficient classes concentrated in recent years before graduation	Active learning theory	SDG 4, SDG 8, SDG 10	High
39	Brixiová et al. (2020)	South America	Economic Modelling	Analysis of female entrepreneurship	Training technologies	African women entrepreneurs	Financial literacy training directly benefits men, but does not increase sales levels for women entrepreneurs	Theory of Female Entrepreneurship	SDG 5, SDG 8	High
40	Wood et al. (2024)	Africa (model applicable to Latin America)	Acta Astronautica	Space technology analysis	Space technologies SDGs	Multiple stakeholders	Six space technologies applied to advance the SDGs: Earth observation, communications, navigation, and microgravity research	Space technology development theory	Multiple SDGs	High
41	Rajkhowa and Baumüller (2024)	Global context (applicable to Latin America)	Journal of Agricultural Economics	Panel analysis 86 countries	ICT agricultural productivity	Multiple countries	ICT penetration contributes to agricultural productivity, but effects vary by regional infrastructure and human capital	ICT development theory	SDG 1, SDG 2	High Environment
42	Müller (2021)	Nigeria	Heliyon	Theoretical analysis of education and innovation	Inspirational intuition education	Education systems	Education generates knowledge throughout life. Inspirational intuition plays an important role as a driver of innovation	Education-innovation theory	SDG 4	Environment
43	Dzator et al. (2023)	(model applicable to Latin America)	Telecommunications Policy	Panel 44 countries 2010–2019	ICT poverty reduction	44 developed countries	ICT penetration contributes to poverty reduction, but the effects vary depending on the prior socioeconomic context	ICT development theory	SDG 1, SDG 9	High
44	Vos and Cattaneo (2021)	Global context (applicable to Latin America)	Journal Integrative Agriculture	Analysis of food value chains	ICT food value chains	Small and medium-sized enterprises	Food markets create employment and income opportunities throughout supply chains, reducing poverty	Theory of inclusive value chains	SDG 1, SDG 2	High

).

3.8. Digital Technologies for Youth Entrepreneurship in Latin America: Systematic Review (2018–2024)

The integrated analysis of the entire corpus of 74 studies reveals structural patterns that transcend simplistic geographical divisions, simultaneously highlighting methodological convergences and significant contextual divergences. Comparative analysis with studies from international contexts suggests differentiated patterns in which immersive technologies show different implementations in complex cognitive skills, partially confirming the first research hypothesis on the effectiveness of immersive digital technologies. However, these findings are systematically in contrast to Latin American evidence, where studies such as those by Valdez-Juárez and García Pérez-de-Lema (2023) and Ortiz-Chávez et al. (2024) document pragmatic technological adaptations that prioritize sustainability and local scalability over optimization of individual effectiveness.

4. Discussion

4.1. Convergence of Transnational Evidence and Parametric Differentiation

The integrated analysis of the complete corpus of 74 studies reveals structural patterns that transcend simplistic geographical divisions, simultaneously evidencing methodological convergences and significant contextual divergences. Specifically, the 30 studies conducted in advanced economies document implementations of immersive technologies that report larger effect sizes in complex cognitive skills, partially confirming the first research hypothesis on the effectiveness of immersive digital technologies. However, these findings systematically contrast with Latin American evidence, where studies such as those by Valdez-Juárez and García Pérez-de-Lema (2023) and Ortiz-Chávez et al. (2024) document pragmatic technological adaptations that prioritize sustainability and local scalability over optimization of individual effectiveness.

Consequently, this differentiation reflects not only disparities in available resources, but also the emergence of fundamentally different technological–pedagogical paradigms. Although the international literature emphasizes technical effectiveness measured by standardized instruments, Latin American studies operationalize effectiveness as distributed social impact and contextual sustainability, evidencing evaluation frameworks that transcend predominant individualistic metrics. This paradigmatic divergence explains the methodological heterogeneity identified and poses challenges to international comparability that require resolution through the development of more inclusive conceptual frameworks.

4.2. Epistemic Architecture of the Field: Bibliometric Triangulation and Empirical Validation

Bibliometric analysis (Figure 1 and Figure 2) provides empirical validation of the conceptual fragmentation identified in the narrative synthesis, revealing knowledge structures that corroborate three distinct research traditions. The identified conceptual core of “innovation–digital transformation–technology entrepreneurship” corresponds directly to the multidimensional integration documented in studies such as Burgos and Branch (2021), who systematically address technological, business and educational dimensions through the implementation of artificial intelligence and Technology 4.0 in Latin American universities.

Likewise, the three cores of academic collaboration evidenced precisely reflect the distinct epistemic traditions: the techno-deterministic cluster concentrates researchers who prioritize technological sophistication, the constructivist cluster emphasizes contextualized pedagogical mediation, while the critical cluster problematizes power relations in technological access. This triangulation between quantitative bibliographic analysis and qualitative narrative synthesis strengthens the validity of the conclusions through methodological convergence that transcends the specific limitations of individual approaches.

Consequently, the coherence between bibliometric patterns and narrative findings indicates a progressive stabilization of conceptual frameworks in the field, suggesting a transition from initial fragmentation to paradigmatic consolidation that maintains productive theoretical diversity without dysfunctional conceptual dispersion.

4.3. Operationalization of “Innovation by Constraint”: Transdisciplinary Conceptual Synthesis

The conceptualization of “innovation by constraint” emerges as a theoretical contribution that reconciles the apparent contradictions between contextual limitations and adaptive capacities documented transversally in the corpus analyzed. Specifically, Haji (2021) documents the accelerated development of e-commerce in rural areas of Brazil, which shows successful technological adaptation despite limited infrastructure, while Arbeláez-Rendón et al. (2023) identify that the shortage of skilled individuals simultaneously inhibits sectoral growth and catalyzes creative solutions through alternative digital ventures.

Furthermore, these paradoxical dynamic finds theoretical support in research such as that of Del Giudice et al. (2019), who demonstrate that insufficiently developed entrepreneurial ecosystems can generate significant technological innovation when mediated by contextualized social entrepreneurship. Kantis et al. (2020) provide a systemic explanation of these mechanisms, showing that emerging countries develop specific comparative advantages through entrepreneurship policies that recognize local structural factors rather than replicating decontextualized international models.

Additionally, the empirical validation of this construct transcends individual cases to reveal systematic patterns documented in methodologically diverse studies, from ethnographic analyses such as Castro-Spila et al. (2018) to robust quantitative research such as Larios-Francia and Ferasso (2023), who document that product innovation combined with process innovation explains 47.1% of organizational performance in resource-constrained contexts.

4.4. Differential Effectiveness and Contextual Mediation: Robust Empirical Confirmation

The findings systematically confirm the second research hypothesis with respect to significant variations in effectiveness according to socioeconomic contexts, but reveal more complex mediating mechanisms than initially anticipated. Although immersive technologies documented in international studies report superior effectiveness in high-infrastructure environments, Latin American evidence shows that mobile platforms and microlearning systems generate comparable impacts when appropriately contextualized.

In particular, Gonzalez-Tamayo et al. (2024) provide quantitative evidence through an analysis of 9703 students that confirms the effectiveness of differentiated technological approaches according to environmental conditions, applying UTAUT theory in both European and Latin American contexts. Similarly, research such as that of Sengupta et al. (2023) on the roles of banks in achieving the SDGs shows that institutional motivations mediate the effectiveness of technological interventions, varying between core business objectives and corporate citizenship according to specific regulatory contexts.

Consequently, differential effectiveness does not only reflect disparities in technological sophistication, but also complex interactions between available resources, institutional frameworks, and cultural appropriation of specific technologies, shaping what we call “contexts of technological effectiveness” that require systematic consideration in the design of interventions.

4.5. Implementation Gaps: Structural Confirmation of the Third Hypothesis

The evidence systematically confirms the third hypothesis regarding the gaps between academic research and practical implementation, but reveals more structural causes than those initially conceptualized. Specifically, studies such as Ferrante et al. (2024) document that digital education policies address inequalities through contextualized sociotechnical imaginaries, but effective implementation encounters obstacles in the articulation between regulatory frameworks, institutional capacities, and specific demands of target populations.

Additionally, research by Ancheta-Arrabal et al. (2021) on the gender digital divide shows that access limitations systematically interact with cultural factors to generate exclusions that transcend technological availability, while Brixiová et al. (2020) demonstrate that apparently neutral interventions generate differentiated effects according to gender, directly benefiting men but without increasing the sales levels of women entrepreneurs.

Therefore, implementation gaps reflect not simply limitations in resources or technical capacities, but systemic tensions between academically developed conceptual frameworks and contextual complexities that emerge during practical implementation, requiring more sophisticated approaches that recognize this inherent multidimensionality.

4.6. Implications for the Development of Transdisciplinary Educational Policies

The integrated findings shape specific guidelines that transcend generic prescriptions, providing evidence-based guidance for different institutional and contextual configurations. For institutions with limited resources, evidence from studies such as Ortiz-Chávez et al. (2024) and Haji (2021) suggests prioritizing appropriate technologies that maximize sustainability and local scalability rather than replicating technological sophistication developed in contexts of abundant resources.

Conversely, for institutions with robust infrastructure, international studies included in the 30 non-Latin American cases document the advantages of immersive technologies when appropriately integrated with constructivist pedagogical frameworks, confirming the relevance of the updated TPACK framework for entrepreneurial contexts, as evidenced by complementary research in the global corpus.

Ultimately, the synthesis of evidence supports the development of “adaptive hybridization” approaches that combine elements of both paradigms according to specific institutional capacities and characteristics of target populations, avoiding false dichotomies between inclusion and quality that have characterized previous debates in digital education policy.

5. Conclusions

This systematic review of 74 studies demonstrates structural transformations that fundamentally redefine the Latin American youth entrepreneurial ecosystem. The evidence documents the consolidation of a differentiated technological–pedagogical paradigm that operates under the logic of “innovation by constraint,” where 44 regional studies systematically show that infrastructural limitations generate specific adaptive advantages, contradicting the predominant deficit narratives on resource-constrained contexts.

The analysis reveals three substantial theoretical contributions. First, contextualized technologies (mobile, microlearning) are not second-rate alternatives, but functionally superior solutions in contexts characterized by socioeconomic heterogeneity, documented in 18 studies that report effectiveness comparable to or superior to expensive immersive technologies. Second, pedagogical effectiveness emerges from the coherence between technology, context and specific social objectives, not from absolute technical sophistication, showing that the systematic link with SDGs 4, 8 and 10 in 78% of Latin American studies represents a strategic competitive advantage. Third, the emerging concept of “inclusive technological development” transcends traditional dichotomies between technical quality and social impact, shaping conceptual frameworks that can inform global education policies.

Bibliometric triangulation empirically validates the emergence of a consolidated academic tradition focused on “innovation, digital transformation, technology entrepreneurship,” indicating a disciplinary maturation that overcomes the initial fragmentation. This conceptual convergence coincides with practical evidence of scalability: documented cases ranging from Peruvian SMEs to regional universities demonstrate the transferability of solutions across diverse contexts.

The methodological limitations identified—geographic concentration, methodological heterogeneity, and longitudinal absence—reflect structural characteristics of emerging academic fields rather than correctable deficiencies. This methodological diversity appropriately captures the contextual complexity necessary to develop authentically inclusive conceptual frameworks.

The transformative contribution lies in demonstrating that contexts traditionally considered “limited” generate technological–pedagogical innovations with the potential for reverse transfer to developed economies. The identified mechanisms of “adaptive hybridization” provide empirical foundations for reorienting international education policies toward models that recognize contextual diversity as a strategic strength rather than an obstacle to overcome.