The Impact of Pre-Retirement Occupational Characteristics on Social Participation in Later Life: A Life Course Perspective

Abstract

Enhancing older adults’ social participation constitutes a critical strategy for actively addressing population aging. From a life course perspective, this study uses data from the 2023 China Longitudinal Aging Social Survey to analyze the impact of occupational characteristics of the pre-retirement of Chinese older adults on their social participation in later life through linear probability models and Logit regression analysis. Key findings reveal that the pre-retirement work sector, occupational roles, and job intensity significantly influence older adults’ social participation. Older adults who previously worked in the public sector are less likely to participate in labor and recreational activities than their non-public sector counterparts. Those who held managerial positions before retirement exhibit higher probabilities of volunteering and recreational activity participation than non-managerial retirees. Additionally, greater pre-retirement job intensity correlates with reduced likelihoods of volunteering and recreational activity participation. Thus, this study identifies inadequate social security provisions as the primary endogenous driver for labor participation in later life. In China’s current developmental phase, gradually delaying the legal retirement age could effectively boost labor supply. Ensuring comprehensive labor protections throughout occupational trajectories and developing tailored interventions based on pre-retirement occupational characteristics prove essential for advancing social participation among older adults. Furthermore, improving information accessibility and participation opportunities serves as crucial pathways for transforming older adults’ participation willingness into concrete behavioral outcomes.

1. Introduction

Since the beginning of the 21st century, China’s population aging process has been accelerating. According to the data from the National Bureau of Statistics, by the end of 2024, the population aged 60 and above in China reached 310 million, accounting for 22.0% of the total population, with 220 million people aged 65 and above, accounting for 15.6%. This trend continues to rise, and population aging will remain a fundamental national condition for China over an extended period (Wang and Wang 2025). In response to the severe challenges by population aging, the Fifth Plenary Session of the 19th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China elevated actively addressing the population aging to a national strategy. In 2002, the World Health Organization proposed the “Health-Participation-Security” trinity framework for active aging, emphasizing that promoting social participation among older adults is a crucial approach to actively addressing population aging and improving their quality of life.

At the policy level, China attaches great importance to the positive role of social participation of older adults. The “14th Five-Year Plan for National Aging Undertakings and Elderly Care Service System” explicitly seeks to “promote social participation of older adults”, “guide older adults to actively engage in family, community, and social development based on their circumstances”, and “actively develop senior human resources”. Social participation among older adults aligns with the inherent requirements of healthy aging, active aging, and productive aging. It serves as a key measure to enhance the quality of life of older adults, unlock the value of senior human resources, and promote the sustainability of an aging society.

Examined through the life course perspective, individual development is a dynamic process composed of interrelated multi-stages, where early-life events lay the foundation for subsequent phases and exert long-lasting profound impacts (Elder 1998). As the final stage of life trajectory, later-life circumstances are profoundly shaped by experiences accumulated during earlier life periods. However, current policies and practical measures for addressing population aging tend to predominantly focus on the elderly stage itself, overlooking the progressive and cumulative effects across individuals’ life courses. Throughout the life course, work represents a prolonged and pivotal domain characterized by multiple dimensions including working hours, organizational types, job intensity, work environment, career achievements, and workplace social networks (Ho 2016; Chae and Heshmati 2024; Nilsen et al. 2022). These occupational characteristics not only shape individuals’ professional competencies but also fundamentally influence socioeconomic status, value systems, lifestyle patterns, and social interaction modalities. Career-accumulated attributes may significantly determine older adults’ capacity, willingness, and patterns of social participation (Singh and Verma 2003). This theoretical framework suggests that interventions targeting early-career characteristics could proactively enhance seniors’ social participation, thereby extending the critical intervention window and offering novel governance strategies for actively addressing population aging.

The compartmentalized structure of China’s retirement system has created a long-standing coexistence of “work-unit-dependent retirement” and endless labor participation, posing significant challenges for identifying career transition points and defining late-life labor participation in this study. Conventionally, retirement refers to workers exiting the workforce due to age or loss of labor capacity, relinquishing their professional identity and occupational income while transitioning to pension benefits and elderly welfare entitlements. According to previous regulations, China’s statutory retirement age was set at 60 for male employees, 50 for female workers, and 55 for female cadres. Starting from 1 January 2025, China began implementing a gradual delay in the legal retirement age, progressively raising it to 63 for male employees, 58 for female cadres, and 55 for female workers. In practice, employees in urban government agencies, public institutions, and enterprises constitute the primary beneficiaries of formal retirement policies, typically mandated to withdraw from labor markets upon reaching the legal retirement age. Conversely, agricultural workers or those in informal economic sectors lack defined retirement mechanisms, with endless labor participation characterizing their occupational trajectories (Zhu 2020). The absence of the rural retirement system, coupled with the decoupling of the pension security system from career development, exacerbates the disadvantages faced by agricultural workers.

Moreover, labor relations and employment protections for those outside the formal retirement system fundamentally differ from institutional retirees, resulting in ambiguous career transition boundaries. To specifically examine the impacts of pre-retirement occupational characteristics on older adults’ social participation—while ensuring research comparability, minimizing confounding factors, and enhancing policy relevance—this study focuses on elderly groups governed by formal retirement systems. In the perspective of the life course, this study tries to explore how pre-retirement occupational attributes influence post-retirement social participation, aiming to inform strategies for enhancing older adults’ social participation, optimizing responses to aging population, and constructing comprehensive aging-related policy frameworks.

2. Literature Review

Social participation of older adults, as a crucial action plan for actively addressing population aging, has become a focal issue of societal concern. Current definitions of older adults’ social participation adopt multiple perspectives including the role engagement perspective (Glass et al. 2006), social interaction perspective (Bassuk et al. 1999), and functional contribution perspective (Jason 2006). Overall, these conceptions emphasize that older adults’ social participation involves establishing connections with others and realizing self-worth through interactions (Xie and Wang 2019; Aroogh and Shahboulaghi 2020). Thus, promoting social participation among older adults holds significant implications for developing senior human resources, unlocking the second demographic dividend, and improving older adults’ quality of life (Cai 2020; Townsend et al. 2021).

Focusing on the social participation practices of older adults reveals that their involvement spans extensive domains, diverse fields, varied forms, and rich content (Zhang et al. 2025). Existing studies mostly emphasize the aspects of social connectedness and mental engagement in older adults’ social participation, categorizing it into social interaction, volunteer service, and recreational activities (Rimmer 2006; Levasseur et al. 2022). However, according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the motivation to participate in society and realize one’s self-worth can only be activated once basic needs are met. Labor participation in old age serves as a critical pathway to fulfilling older adults’ these basic needs (Hou et al. 2023). Particularly in the Chinese context, labor participation in later life is an essential means for older adults to meet their basic living requirements, maintain social connections, and achieve productive aging (Ma et al. 2025). Therefore, this study synthesizes the view that older adults’ social participation should encompass mainstream categories such as economic participation, volunteer participation, and recreational activity participation (Gélinas et al. 2008; Zhong and Cheng 2022). Economic participation refers to older adults engaging in productive activities to obtain income or compensation (Li 2016), encompassing both formal reemployment after retirement and flexible informal employment. However, Chinese older adults generally exhibit low motivation for labor participation, often driven by basic subsistence needs rather than proactive engagement (Wang and Hu 2024). Volunteer participation involves non-profit, non-professional assistance provided by older adults to neighbors, communities, and society. With increasing life expectancy, improved health, and optimized social environment, more seniors are engaging in volunteerism. This fosters personal well-being through role identity, skill enhancement, and social interaction (Musick and Wilson 2003; Anderson et al. 2014; Griep et al. 2017). Recreational activity participation entails enriching spiritual and cultural lives through experiences like square dancing, singing, board games, senior education programs, and senior tourism. Such activities diversify daily routines, alleviate anxiety and depression, and serve as protective factors for the quality of life of older adults (Dawson-Townsend 2019; Chan et al. 2024). Family caregiving participation differs from the above three, representing family-oriented engagement, such as caring for a spouse, elderly parents, children, or grandchildren (Xie et al. 2021).

The Life Course Theory incorporates the concept of temporal perspective, focusing on the influences of structural, social, and cultural factors throughout life trajectories. It emphasizes the long-term impacts of early-life experiences on individual development (Elder 1998). Existing research demonstrates significant correlations between early-life experiences and social participation in later life (Vogelsang 2021; Kannan et al. 2023), highlighting the crucial role of retrospective examination of pivotal life events in enhancing social engagement during old age. Within individual life courses, occupational characteristics are intrinsically linked to economic status, personal values, and social interactions. Through the comprehensive accumulation of resources, these factors collectively influence decision-making in later life, serving as vital pathways for personal growth and the pursuit of well-being.

China’s unique labor system has shaped diverse occupational characteristics, with the long-term accumulation of advantageous or disadvantageous traits contributing to differentiated older adults. Historically, China maintained a dual structure of public and non-public sectors (Yao and Zhang 2023). During marketization reforms, the traditional work-unit system endured while deepening marketization catalyzed rapid growth of the non-public sector, creating crucial employment channels. However, institutional segmentation between the two sectors persisted over extended periods, gradually reinforcing this distinct dual structure. The public sector, positioned near centers of power and resource allocation, represent government authority or state asset-backed organizations (Demurger et al. 2012), enjoying richer fiscal resource support and national policy preferences (Wang and Xie 2015). Public sector employees demonstrate unparalleled advantages compared to non-public sector counterparts across multiple dimensions: wage income, social security coverage, job stability, social prestige, welfare benefits, and job satisfaction (Qian et al. 2015; Sun and Zhang 2021). In contrast, the non-public sectors guided by market principles and efficiency logic exhibit weaker resilience to macroeconomic fluctuations, exposing employees to heightened risks from market uncertainties (Yao and Zhang 2023).

China’s distinct labor system and its prevalent occupational characteristics collectively influence decision-making in later life stages through cumulative advantages or disadvantages (Karasek 1979). The accumulation of high-level income, security, stability, welfare benefits, and social prestige in public sector employment fosters favorable economic conditions and social status in old age. These retirees typically receive generous pension benefits, exhibiting lower likelihoods of re-entering the labor market due to financial pressures (Kim 2008). Similarly, individuals engaged in managerial and professional technical roles during their careers, benefiting from elevated economic income, demonstrate reduced probabilities of labor market participation or re-entry in later life. Early exposure to secure, comfortable work environments and lower job intensity helps maintain relatively better physical health in old age (Silineviča 2019; Pandey et al. 2020), establishing foundational conditions for sustained social engagement. In summary, promoting social participation among older adults constitutes a beneficial strategy for actively addressing population aging. While existing research has explored measures to enhance older adults’ social participation, most studies focus on the post-retirement phase, adopting an “aging-centric” perspective that limits temporal scope. The intriguing question of whether individuals’ pre-retirement occupational characteristics influence their post-retirement participation behaviors warrants deeper investigation. Although prior research has examined career trajectories and explored the impact of pre-retirement work experiences on labor participation in later life (Kim 2008; Brydsten et al. 2025), few have extended beyond labor participation to consider other forms of social engagement. In reality, retirees participate in diverse activities to enrich their lives, maintain social connections, and fulfill self-worth. To address this gap, this study expands the focus of social participation by recognizing retirees’ multifaceted social engagement beyond mere employment.

Post-retirement participation encompasses diverse forms of social involvement—including labor participation, volunteer participation, and recreational activities participation. A key objective of this study lies in investigating differential impacts across these distinct goal-oriented participation types. In adopting a life course perspective, this study shifts analytical focus upstream to pre-retirement occupational characteristics—encompassing the work sector, occupational roles, job intensity, and work environment—to systematically analyze their effects on three dimensions of older adults’ social participation. By elucidating how pre-retirement occupational characteristic influence post-retirement participation, this study aims to proactively shift the focus of aging policy interventions earlier in the life course, provide evidence for improving policies related to social participation and retirement, and establish life-course-integrated implementation pathways for enhancing the quality of life of older adults. This research aspires to contribute both theoretical and practical insights for developing comprehensive strategies that promote well-being interventions throughout individuals’ life trajectories.

3. Study Design

3.1. Data Sources

This study utilizes data from the China Longitudinal Aging Social Survey (CLASS), a large-scale, nationwide and continuous social survey project conducted by Renmin University of China, targeting adults aged 60 and above. Initiated in 2014, the survey has subsequently conducted follow-up waves in 2016, 2018, 2020, and 2023, employing a stratified multi-stage probability sampling method that covers 28 provinces (autonomous regions/municipalities) across China.

This analysis uses the latest released 2023 cross-sectional data, with an initial sample size of 11,670. To examine the impact of pre-retirement occupational characteristics on post-retirement social participation while minimizing confounding factors among population outside the retirement system, this study retains only 4928 older adults who explicitly completed retirement procedures. Further exclusions were made for observations with missing core or control variables (exclude 701 cases of “don’t know” and “refuse to answer” for income, and three cases of “unable to answer” for self-rated health.). As a result, a total of 4224 valid samples were included in the analysis.

3.2. Variable Measurement

3.2.1. Dependent Variable: Social Participation

This study examines the social participation status of older adults through three dimensions: labor participation, volunteer participation, and recreational activity participation.

Labor participation is measured by the questionnaire item, “Are you currently engaged in any paid work/activities?” Responses are converted into a dummy variable “labor participation” (0 = not participating, 1 = participating several times a year/at least once a month/at least once a week/almost daily).

Volunteer participation is assessed based on older adults’ participation in seven activities over the past year, including community security patrols1, taking care of other seniors/children, environmental protection, mediating neighborhood disputes, providing companionship, offering volunteer services requiring professional skills, and youth education mentorship. Participation in any one of these activities is assigned a value of 1 (yes) or 0 (no).

Recreational activity participation is evaluated through engagement in five activities over the past year, including religious activities, attending senior universities or training courses, singing or playing musical instruments, playing mahjong/chess/cards, and square dancing. Older adults participating in at least one of these five activities are assigned 1 (yes), while those did not participate in any are assigned 0 (no).

3.2.2. Independent Variable: Pre-Retirement Occupational Characteristics

This study examines the occupational characteristics of older adults before retirement through four dimensions: work sector, occupational role, job intensity, and work environment.

Work sector is categorized into a dummy variable, where the public sector is assigned a value of 1 (including government departments/party organs/people’s organizations, public institutions, state-owned and state holding enterprises, and the military), while the non-public sector is assigned 0 (including collective enterprises, private or foreign enterprises, self-operated or co-operated private businesses, individual businesses, social organizations/private non-governmental organizations/associations, and those without a formal unit).

Occupational role is measured by the question, “What was your position in the work unit before retirement?” Senior executives, mid-level managers, and junior managers are categorized as “managerial roles” (assigned 1), while ordinary employees and others are classified as “non-managerial roles” (assigned 0).

Job intensity is assessed through the questionnaire item, “During most of your working time, how physically and mentally exhausting was your job?” with responses ranging from 1 to 5 (“very relaxed” to “very strenuous”).

Work environment is evaluated by the question, “During most of your working time, how polluted or unsafe was your work environment?” with responses ranging from 1 to 5 (“very comfortable” to “very harsh”).

3.2.3. Control Variables

This study incorporates control variables based on existing research (Anaby et al. 2009; Jaiswal et al. 2020), including age, gender (0 = female, 1 = male), urban–rural residence (0 = rural, 1 = urban), hukou (0 = agricultural hukou, 1 = non-agricultural hukou)2, education level (primary school and below, secondary education, college and above), marital status (0 = not married, 1 = married), number of living children, income (log-transformed), pension status (0 = no, 1 = yes), self-rated health (poor, fair, good), number of chronic diseases, and grandchildren caring (0 = no, 1 = yes).

Table 1. Descriptive statistics for the main variables.

Variables		Mean (SD)	Min	Max
Labor participation		0.068	0	1
Volunteer participation		0.422	0	1
Recreational activity participation		0.693	0	1
Public sector		0.405	0	1
Managerial role		0.123	0	1
Job intensity		3.214 (0.985)	1	5
Work environment		3.006 (0.926)	1	5
Age		71.014 (5.848)	60	96
Males		0.518	0	1
Urban		0.905	0	1
Non-agricultural hukou		0.844	0	1
Education	Primary school and below	0.341	0	1
	Secondary education	0.612	0	1
	College and above	0.047	0	1
Married		0.871	0	1
Number of living children		1.710 (0.933)	0	7
Logarithm of income		9.929 (1.180)	4.605	12.899
Pension		0.991	0	1
Self-rated health	Poor	0.081	0	1
	Fair	0.311	0	1
	Good	0.609	0	1
Number of chronic diseases		2.126 (1.542)	0	10
Grandchildren caring		0.245	0	1

presents the descriptive statistics of the key variables. Overall, among the 4224 retired older adults, only 6.8% still engaged in paid work, while over 40% participated in at least one volunteer service in the past year, and more than 60% engaged in one or more recreational activities, indicating retirees’ greater inclination toward non-productive activities such as volunteering and recreational activities.

Regarding pre-retirement occupational characteristics, 40.5% previously worked in the public sector, 12.3% held managerial roles, 39.97% perceived their work as physically or mentally strenuous most of the time, and over 20% reported working in harsh environments. For the other control variables, the average age of surveyed older adults is 71.0 years old, with males slightly outnumbering females. Over 90% resided in urban areas, predominantly holding non-agricultural hukou. More than 60% of them attained secondary education. In total, 87.1% of the retirees are married and have an average of more than one living child. Among them, 43.42% of older adults have an annual income exceeding the national per capita disposable income of Chinese residents in 2023, and nearly all receive pensions. Over 60% reported their health as good, with an average of approximately two chronic diseases. Additionally, 24.5% of the older adults provided care for grandchildren.

3.3. Methods

This study examines how pre-retirement occupational characteristics influence social participation in later life in three steps.

First, descriptive statistical methods were employed to analyze the basic characteristics of older adults based on their participation status in labor, volunteer services, and recreational activities. Differences in pre-retirement occupational characteristics and sociodemographic attributes between participating and non-participating older adults were compared using t-tests and chi-square tests, thereby delineating distinct profiles of the older adults within or without participation.

Second, given that labor participation, volunteer participation, and recreational activity participation are all binary variables, we applied linear probability models (LPMs) to investigate the effects of pre-retirement occupational characteristics. The model was specified as follows:

$$Y_i={\beta }_0+{\beta }_1{X}_i+{\beta }_n{C}_i+{\epsilon }_i$$

(1)

In this equation, $Y_i$ represents the social participation of older adults, including labor participation, volunteer participation, and recreational activity participation. $X_i$ denotes pre-retirement occupational characteristics, including work sector, occupational role, job intensity, and work environment. $C_i$ includes control variables for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. ${\beta }_0$ is the intercept term, and ${\beta }_1$ and ${\beta }_n$ are the coefficients for the independent and control variables, respectively. ${\epsilon }_i$ is the random error term. Crucially, ${\beta }_1$ captures the effect of pre-retirement occupational characteristics on older adults’ social participation, serving as the core focus of this study.

Finally, to validate the robustness of the LPM results, we conducted supplementary estimations using Logit regressions following the same model specifications to examine the impact of pre-retirement occupational characteristics on the social participation of older adults, and the Logit regression results reported odds ratios.

4. Results

In this section, we present the results of our empirical analysis. Section 4.1 describes the main characteristics of the sample, comparing the differences in older adults who participate and those who do not. Section 4.2 gives the results of the regression models, exploring the relationship between pre-retirement occupational characteristics and labor participation in later life.

4.1. Characteristics of Older Adults with Different Types of Social Participation

Understanding the basic characteristics of retired older adults regarding their current social participation status is crucial for accurately identifying the target groups and formulating policies to promote their engagement, which holds significant importance for advancing active aging strategies.

Table 2. Characteristics of older adults participating and not participating in labor force.

Variables		Non-Labor Participation (N = 3937)	Labor Participation (N = 287)	${\mathit{\chi }}^{\mathbf{2}}/\mathit{t}$
Public sector		41.66%	24.04%	34.453 ***
Managerial role		12.29%	12.89%	0.089
Job intensity		3.214 (0.984)	3.213 (1.007)	0.026
Work environment		3.005 (0.928)	3.024 (0.898)	−0.341
Age		71.211 (5.868)	68.317 (4.826)	8.156 ***
Males		51.08%	62.02%	12.827 ***
Urban		92.15%	67.94%	182.436 ***
Non-agricultural hukou		86.54%	55.05%	201.397 ***
Education	Primary school and below	33.66%	40.42%	7.511 ***
	Secondary education	61.77%	53.66%
	College and above	4.57%	5.92%
Married		87.02%	88.85%	0.799
Number of living children		1.712 (0.933)	1.693 (0.941)	0.321
Logarithm of income		9.946 (1.163)	9.688 (1.370)	3.582 ***
Pension		99.06%	99.30%	0.173
Self-rated health	Poor	8.36%	3.83%	28.694 ***
	Fair	31.83%	20.56%
	Good	59.82%	75.61%
Number of chronic diseases		2.186 (1.553)	1.303 (1.091)	9.463 ***
Grandchildren caring		75.64%	73.87%	0.455

*** p < 0.01.

presents the basic characteristics of older adults who are labor force participants and non-participants. It reveals that the proportion of older adults engaged in paid work after retirement who previously worked in the public sector is significantly lower than that of non-participating retirees. Labor force participants are younger, have a higher male proportion, exhibit higher rural residency rates, and include more individuals with agricultural backgrounds compared to non-participants. Educational attainment among labor participants shows a bimodal distribution, with significantly higher proportions of those with primary school education and below, as well as with college education and above, compared to non-participants. The income levels of retirees engaged in post-retirement labor are lower than those of non-participants, while their health status is better than that of non-participants.

Table 3. Characteristics of older adults volunteering and not volunteering.

Variables		Non-Volunteer Participation (N = 2441)	Volunteer Participation (N = 1783)	${\mathit{\chi }}^{\mathbf{2}}/\mathit{t}$
Public sector		39.57%	41.67%	1.882
Managerial role		10.65%	14.64%	15.147 ***
Job intensity		3.271 (0.989)	3.136 (0.976)	4.423 ***
Work environment		3.034 (0.923)	2.969(0.930)	2.234 **
Age		71.582 (6.156)	70.237 (5.302)	7.427 ***
Males		52.07%	51.49%	0.140
Urban		89.76%	91.53%	3.769 *
Non-agricultural hukou		84.88%	84.74%	1.031
Education	Primary school and below	52.07%	51.49%	80.426 ***
	Secondary education	89.76%	91.53%
	College and above	84.88%	84.74%
Married		85.25%	89.74%	18.499 ***
Number of living children		1.784 (0.986)	1.610 (0.846)	6.025 ***
Logarithm of income		9.838 (1.168)	10.053 (1.184)	−5.883 ***
Pension		98.93%	99.27%	1.272
Self-rated health	Poor	7.95%	8.19%	5.870 *
	Fair	29.66%	32.98%
	Good	62.39%	58.83%
Number of chronic diseases		2.106 (1.620)	2.154 (1.429)	−1.010
Grandchildren caring		16.39%	35.56%	204.850 ***

* p < 0.1, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

analyzes the characteristics of older adults based on their volunteer participation. Compared to non-participants, those engaged in volunteer services exhibit a higher proportion of individuals who previously held managerial roles. Retirees involved in volunteer activities reported significantly lower levels of work-related exhaustion and markedly better work environment comfort during their pre-retirement years than their non-participating counterparts. Additionally, compared to non-participants, volunteers tended to be younger, had higher urban residency rates, were more likely to be married, had fewer living children, attained higher education levels, reported higher income levels, and demonstrated higher involvement in caring for grandchildren.

Table 4. Characteristics of older adults participating and not participating in recreational activities.

Variables		Non-Recreational Activity Participation (N = 1295)	Recreational Activity Participation (N = 2929)	${\mathit{\chi }}^{\mathbf{2}}/\mathit{t}$
Public sector		42.08%	39.74%	2.049
Managerial role		9.34%	13.66%	15.448 ***
Job intensity		3.297 (1.056)	3.178 (0.051)	3.624 ***
Work environment		3.060 (0.974)	2.983 (0.903)	2.514 **
Age		73.506 (6.013)	69.913 (5.421)	19.196 ***
Males		50.66%	52.34%	1.018
Urban		86.64%	92.22%	32.481 ***
Non-agricultural hukou		79.23%	86.68%	37.923 ***
Education	Primary school and below	48.11%	27.93%	165.057 ***
	Secondary education	48.96%	66.64%
	College and above	2.93%	5.43%
Married		81.16%	89.79%	59.747 ***
Number of living children		2.003 (1.004)	1.581 (0.870)	13.852 ***
Logarithm of income		9.608 (1.222)	10.070 (1.132)	−11.940 ***
Pension		97.84%	99.62%	31.334 ***
Self-rated health	Poor	9.03%	7.61%	26.810 ***
	Fair	35.91%	28.92%
	Good	55.06%	63.47%
Number of chronic diseases		1.780 (1.425)	2.279 (1.567)	−9.812 ***
Grandchildren caring		13.75%	29.22%	116.395 ***

** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

displays the characteristics of older adults based on recreational activity participation. Compared to retirees not engaged in recreational activities, participants exhibited higher proportions of individuals who previously held managerial roles, lower job intensity, and more comfortable work environment during their pre-retirement years.

Regarding other demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, recreational participants tended to be younger, had higher urban residency rates, were more likely to hold non-agricultural hukou, had higher marriage rates, fewer living children, attained higher education levels, reported better economic status, higher rates of pension receipt, better health status, and displayed a greater likelihood of caring for grandchildren compared to non-participants.

Overall, distinct characteristic differences exist between socially participating and non-participating retired older adults, particularly in their pre-retirement occupational characteristics. Compared to non-labor participants, older adults engaged in labor showed a significantly higher proportion of working in the non-public sector; retirees participating in volunteer services and recreational activities exhibited higher rates of former managerial roles, lower historical job intensity, and better work environments compared to non-participants. These findings suggest that pre-retirement occupational characteristics may play a crucial role in improving post-retirement social participation among older adults, warranting further in-depth analysis.

4.2. The Impact of Pre-Retirement Occupational Characteristics on Social Participation in Later Life

The results by the linear probability model examining the impact of pre-retirement occupational characteristics on social participation in later life are presented in

Table 5. The impact of pre-retirement occupational characteristics on labor participation, volunteer participation, and recreational activity participation in later life (LMP).

Variables		Labor Participation	Volunteer Participation	Recreational Activity Participation
Public sector		−0.027 *** (0.008)	0.006 (0.016)	−0.026 * (0.014)
Managerial role		0.014 (0.012)	0.041 * (0.023)	0.036 * (0.021)
Job intensity		−0.001(0.004)	−0.025 *** (0.008)	−0.019 *** (0.007)
Work environment		−0.002 (0.004)	−0.007 (0.008)	−0.003 (0.007)
Age		−0.005 *** (0.001)	−0.001 (0.002)	−0.016 *** (0.001)
Males		0.025 *** (0.007)	−0.018 (0.015)	0.021 (0.013)
Urban		−0.129 *** (0.014)	−0.004 (0.028)	0.020 (0.025)
Non-agricultural hukou		−0.104 *** (0.011)	−0.072 *** (0.023)	0.048 ** (0.020)
Education	Secondary education	−0.020 ** (0.009)	0.065 *** (0.017)	0.060 ***(0.016)
	College and above	0.003 (0.019)	0.202 *** (0.038)	0.111 ***(0.034)
Married		−0.010 (0.012)	0.044 * (0.023)	0.027 (0.021)
Number of living children		−0.001 (0.004)	−0.027 *** (0.009)	−0.039 *** (0.008)
Logarithm of income		0.006 * (0.003)	0.033 *** (0.007)	0.036 *** (0.006)
Pension		0.039 (0.039)	0.044 (0.077)	0.293 *** (0.069)
Self-rated health	Fair	0.005 (0.015)	0.022 (0.029)	0.030 (0.026)
	Good	0.035 ** (0.014)	−0.060 ** (0.028)	0.029 (0.025)
Number of chronic diseases		−0.019 *** (0.003)	−0.004 (0.005)	0.039 *** (0.005)
Grandchildren caring		−0.006(0.009)	0.217 *** (0.018)	0.064 *** (0.016)
_cons		0.576 *** (0.077)	0.212 (0.153)	1.044 *** (0.137)
R2		0.107	0.078	0.150

* p < 0.1, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

. After controlling for other variables, compared to older adults who worked in the non-public sector, those who worked in the public sector show a 2.7 percentage point lower probability of labor participation after retirement. Early occupational roles, job intensity, and work environment have no significant impact on post-retirement labor participation.

According to the Cumulative Advantage Theory of the life course, public sector employment in China usually offers higher income, superior welfare benefits, stronger social security, and better occupational prestige, enabling individuals to accumulate relatively substantial socioeconomic resources over time (Lee 1998). As a result, public sector retirees typically enjoy relatively stable pensions and welfare guarantees, face less financial pressure, and consequently exhibit weaker intrinsic motivation to seek additional income through continued employment. In contrast, those who worked in the non-public sector before retirement often receive comparatively lower pensions or harbor concerns about insufficient financial security in old age (Tur-Sinai et al. 2024), thereby demonstrating a stronger motivation to maintain labor participation in later life as a means to supplement income.

Regarding volunteer service participation, older adults who worked in the public sector show a higher probability of post-retirement involvement compared to those in the non-public sector, though this difference was statistically insignificant. Older adults who held managerial positions before retirement demonstrate a 4.1 percentage point higher probability of volunteer participation in later life than non-managerial workers. Early job intensity shows a significant negative impact on post-retirement volunteer participation, with each unit increase in work-related exhaustion corresponding to a 2.5 percentage point decrease in the probability of volunteering. The influence of work environment, however, remains statistically insignificant.

Public sector employment typically emphasizes social responsibility and public service awareness, while also enabling the accumulation of rich organizational resources and social networks, making it feasible to harness the volunteer potential of this group. However, large-scale promotion of senior volunteerism in China remains at a nascent stage, facing practical challenges such as shifting public perceptions. Nevertheless, with extended temporal effects and sustained policy advocacy, retirees who once worked in public sector could emerge as a crucial force in future volunteer participation. Additionally, individuals in managerial roles possess accumulated professional expertise, social capital, and influence throughout their careers, which, along with their desire of self-actualization, endows them with greater capabilities, opportunities, and enthusiasm for volunteering compared to non-managerial employees. Furthermore, having a lower-intensity job before retirement implies reduced physical and psychological strain and lower risks of chronic diseases or occupational ailments, thereby enhancing the likelihood of maintaining robust health in later life, which could provide a critical enabler for sustained volunteer participation.

For recreational activity participation, compared to older adults who worked in the non-public sector before retirement, public sector employees show a 2.6 percentage point reduction in the probability of participating in recreational activities. Possible explanations might be the following: first, differences in work habits and rhythms. Public sector employment typically features strong regularity and stability. Long-term exposure to such environments may lead public-sector employees to develop relatively fixed daily routines and cognitive patterns. After retirement, they tend to maintain a quiet and orderly lifestyle, and require more time to adapt to dynamic and varied recreational activities, resulting in lower participation rates.

In contrast, older adults who held managerial positions in their workplaces showed a 3.6 percentage point increase in post-retirement recreational activity participation compared to non-managerial individuals. Those who attained managerial positions generally possess strong self-motivation—a mindset that persists into retirement and motivates them to actively engage in various recreational activities to enrich their post-retirement life and maintain vitality.

Additionally, job intensity has a negative impact on recreational activity participation. Each unit increase in job-related intensity exhaustion corresponds to 2 percentage point decrease in the probability of post-retirement recreational activity participation among older adults. From the perspective of physical and mental health, a high-intensity job imposes significant burdens on both the body and mind. Prolonged exposure to such work leads to fatigue or even illness, prompting retirees to prioritize rest and recovery over recreational pursuits. From the perspective of interest cultivation, a high-intensity job consumes the time and energy needed to develop recreational hobbies before retirement, resulting in a lack of foundational skills and enthusiasm for engaging in such activities in later life.

The individual–family balance constitutes a critical perspective in contemporary research on older adults’ social participation (Xie et al. 2021). Grandchildren care serves as a vital form of family engagement for older adults, influencing their participation in economic activities, volunteer services, and recreational pursuits through mechanisms of role strain, resource exchange, and network expansion. The results in Table 5 reveal that compared to non-caregivers, grandparents who provide childcare exhibit a significantly higher probability of engaging in volunteer services and recreational activities, while its effect on labor participation is insignificantly negative. Explanations might be from the three following perspectives:

First, the network expansion perspective. Childcare provision strengthens older adults’ connections with their children, relatives, and peers, accessing enriched activity information that enhances volunteer and recreational participation (Li and Gao 2024). Secondly, the role conflict perspective. Grandchildren care demands substantial time and energy investment, creating difficulties in balancing paid employment (Rupert and Zanella 2018). Thirdly, the resource exchange perspective. Caring for grandchildren enhances children’s financial assistance to older adults, reducing older adults’ economic pressure, and consequently, their intrinsic motivation to remain in the labor force. Thus, these findings and explanations suggest that expanding older adults’ social networks and enhancing information accessibility could serve as effective strategies for promoting their social participation across various domains.

To further verify the impact of pre-retirement occupational characteristics on older adults’ post-retirement social participation, we conducted robustness checks using Logit models (as shown in

Table 6. The impact of pre-retirement occupational characteristics on labor participation, volunteer participation, and recreational activity participation in later life (Logit).

Variables	Labor Participation	Volunteer Participation	Recreational Activity Participation
Public sector	0.548 *** (0.088)	1.024 (0.072)	0.855 ** (0.067)
Managerial role	1.298 (0.269)	1.196 * (0.121)	1.224 * (0.149)
Job intensity	1.004 (0.069)	0.894 *** (0.030)	0.915 ** (0.033)
Work environment	0.981 (0.071)	0.969 (0.035)	0.978 (0.037)
Control variables	Control	Control	Control
_cons	445.298 *** (706.117)	0.272 * (0.188)	19.489 *** (14.402)
R2	0.195	0.058	0.131

* p < 0.1, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. The figure reported in the table is the odds ratio.

). The results indicate the following:

For labor participation, the nature of the work sector significantly influences post-retirement labor participation. Compared to those employed in the non-public sector, older adults who worked in the public sector exhibit lower odds ratios for labor participation after retirement.

For volunteer participation, the pre-retirement occupational role notably affects volunteer engagement in later life. Former managerial employees show higher odds ratios for volunteer participation compared to non-managers, while job intensity exerts a significant negative effect on post-retirement volunteer participation, meaning that retirees with more strenuous jobs before retirement are less likely to engage in volunteering.

For recreational participation, work sector, occupational role, and job intensity collectively shape older adults’ participation in recreational activities. Public-sector and non-managerial retirees demonstrate lower odds ratios for recreational participation, while higher job intensity correspond to decreased likelihood of participation in recreational activities.

These analytical outcomes align with those from the linear probability models, confirming the robustness of these observed effects. The alignment between both analytical methods underscores the reliability of the conclusions regarding the influence of pre-retirement occupational characteristics on post-retirement social engagement.

5. Discussion and Conclusions

This study uses data from the 2023 China Longitudinal Aging Social Survey (CLASS) and utilizes linear probability models and Logit models to explore the impact of pre-retirement occupational characteristics on social participation in later life. The key findings are as follows:

(1) The nature of the work sector significantly affects the likelihood of post-retirement labor participation. Older adults who worked in the public sector show a significantly lower probability of engaging in labor activities after retirement compared to those in the non-public sector. (2) Occupational role and job intensity play crucial roles in shaping volunteer participation. Retirees who held non-managerial roles or experienced higher job intensity during their careers exhibit lower probabilities of engaging in volunteer services. (3) Public sector employment, managerial roles, and job intensity collectively affect recreational activity participation. Retirees from the public sector or non-managerial roles demonstrate a lower likelihood of participating in recreational activities compared to their non-public sector or managerial counterparts, while higher job intensity is associated with a reduced likelihood of recreational activities participation. In the process of China’s rapid population aging, how to purposefully promote older adults’ social participation, activate potential senior human resources, and support retirees facing social disengagement risks to achieve “productive aging” and “joyful aging” while improving their quality of life, are some of the critical goals for actively addressing population aging. The analysis reveals that the adequacy of pension and social security inversely impacts older adults’ post-retirement labor participation, with insufficient pension often serving as the primary driver for retirees’ continued working. Furthermore, the relationships between pre-retirement occupational characteristics (work sector, occupational role, and job intensity) and post-retirement social participation highlight the importance of shifting policy focus to earlier career stages.

Breaking free from the narrow perspective confined to old age, tailored strategies should prioritize support for workers in non-public sectors, non-managerial roles, and high-intensity occupations, ensuring comprehensive labor protections throughout their careers. Those measures are key to advance older adults’ participation in labor, volunteering, and recreational activities. Additionally, expanding access to information channels and participation opportunities is also critical to turn older adults’ willingness into actual participation. Achieving these goals requires collaborative efforts from multiple stakeholders including policymakers, community organizations, family members, and activity organizers. Based on these findings, this study proposes the following three policy implications:

First, establish a comprehensive labor security system that covers the entire career lifecycle, with particular focus on workers in disadvantaged occupational characteristics. (1) Enhance labor protection for working-age laborers. Strengthen occupational health safeguards, increase pension subsidies, and provide occupational health allowances to compensate workers in low-protection, high-intensity jobs for physical and mental damage caused by long-term exposure to adverse working conditions, thereby improving their financial security and health outcomes in later life, reducing barriers to continued social engagement after retirement. (2) Gradually raise the retirement age in progressive steps. In light of China’s aging population, delaying the legal retirement age serves as an effective measure to expand the labor supply and tap into senior human resources, hence proactively addressing population aging. A transitional flexible employment system should be established that fully considers differences in organizational characteristics across work sectors. This system should allow workers to adjust their work schedules, hours, or part-time arrangements during the delayed retirement phase based on their physical condition and job requirements. This would help optimize their labor value while alleviating financial pressures. (3) Strengthen protections for elderly workers. Safeguard the rights and interests of senior workers in the labor market by preventing age discrimination, and fostering a fair age-friendly employment environment. (4) Provide employment information and access to skills training opportunities for senior workers, ensuring they have the resources to maintain sustainable labor participation and adapt to evolving job demands in their later life.

Second, implement differentiated social participation mobilization strategies based on occupational characteristics. To promote broader and more meaningful social participation among retirees, it is essential to adopt differentiated mobilization strategies that reflect older adults’ diverse occupational backgrounds. Encourage retirees from public sectors to leverage their professional expertise in relevant volunteer services or social welfare activities, such as knowledge-sharing lectures, professional consultations, and mentorship programs, thereby achieving a win–win outcome of enriching their post-retirement life and enhancing personal value while contributing to society. Fully utilize the management and coordination capabilities of retired management personnels to motivate their involvement in the planning and organization of volunteer service and recreational activity projects, improving the quality and influence of these initiatives to foster a virtuous cycle. In addition, prioritize the engagement of retirees from low-intensity occupations by understanding their unique needs and interests in social participation. Design activities that are accessible and enjoyable, such as low-intensity, short-duration programs, to attract participation from those accustomed to high-intensity jobs. These tailored activities could reignite their enthusiasm and provide accessible pathways into volunteerism and recreational pursuits

Third, expand social networks and enhance information accessibility to foster objective conditions conducive to people’s social participation in an aging society. Implement relevant policies to encourage collaboration among social organizations, enterprises, and communities to jointly develop social projects specifically designed for older adults to participate in, build bridges for interaction and communication to help them expand their interpersonal networks and construct diverse social connections, enrich their social lives and enhance community cohesion. Additionally, integrate resources from government departments, social organizations, enterprises, and other stakeholders to establish a one-stop centralized digital platform providing comprehensive information on employment opportunities, volunteer services, recreational activities, education, and training programs for older adults’ social participation. Utilize big data and AI-driven service systems to tailor participation opportunities based on senior adults’ interest, occupational backgrounds, skills, and locations. The platform could help to ensure timely access to relevant activities lowering barriers to engagement and enhancing participation. By strengthening these information channels and community ties, older adults could more easily discover and engage in meaningful social activities, enhancing both their personal fulfillment and contribution to society.

It should be acknowledged that this study examining the impact of pre-retirement occupational characteristics on social participation in later life from a life course perspective has limitations in data and methodology. First, while we have incorporated critical dimensions of pre-retirement occupational characteristics—including work sector, occupational role, job intensity, and work environment—the limited availability of variables in the China Longitudinal Aging Social Survey precluded the inclusion of pivotal factors such as pre-retirement wage levels and job classifications for analysis. Second, constrained by data availability, this research relies on cross-sectional data derived from respondents’ retrospective recall of past occupational attributes. This approach inherently restricts a comprehensive life course investigation based on detailed work histories. In future research, sequential analysis methods will be employed to deepen the investigation when data become available.