Psychosocial Differences Between Female and Male Students in Learning Patterns and Mental Health-Related Indicators in STEM vs. Non-STEM Fields
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Male-Female Differences in Learning Dimensions: Theoretical Framework
1.2. Male-Female Differences in Mental Health in Education
1.3. Gender and STEM
1.4. Parenting Dimensions Affecting Male-Female Differences in Learning
1.5. Addressing the Needs for Research in Male-Female Differences in STEM Fields Based on the Diversity in Learning Patterns
- Coping with Difficulties: Managing mental health distresses and psychosocial difficulties related to learning, such as anxiety, apathy, demotivation, bad mood, irritability, lack of attention, low achievement expectations, and difficulties dealing with the social learning environments.
- Effort: Reflecting perseverance, regularity, capacity to delay reward, and internal attribution of performance.
- Autonomy: Embracing active learning, integrating information from various sources, developing personal theories, and seeking evidence.
- Learning by Understanding and Career Interest: Demonstrating intrinsic motivation to deeply understand the discipline for professional preparation.
- Social Context: Preferring studying alone or in groups and choosing the study environment (home vs. university).
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample
2.2. Instrument
2.3. Design and Procedure
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Descriptives and Correlations
3.2. Male-Female Differences in Learning Dimensions: Study Findings
3.3. Differences in Paternal and Maternal Parenting Practices Related to Learning Dimensions
3.4. Sex Differences in Learning Dimensions in STEM Fields
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
- Female university students expressed greater psychosocial difficulties, poorer perceived self-efficacy, and less autonomy in their studies than male students, but with no differences in academic performance.
- Mothers’ and fathers’ roles continue to influence their sons’ and daughters’ learning and mental health patterns in higher education according to the traditional gender roles. The mother’s role continues to have a stronger and more significant impact than the father’s role.
- Female students in STEM fields seem to be more similar to male students in their learning patterns and mental health than students in non-STEM fields.
- In the present study, traditional gender roles and attitudes seem to feature among university students and in the impact of their father’s and mother’s roles. Although we have made significant progress in equality between females and males in terms of presence and achievement in higher education, there is considerable room for psychological, psychosocial, and psychoeducational progress before we can reach a truly egalitarian education system.
- If we are to improve the presence of females in STEM fields, we need to make greater efforts to reduce gender attributions from the early stages of education.
- We need to apply more in-depth psychosocial and psychoeducational work on eliminating gender stereotypes—which will otherwise persist across generations—in order to achieve truly inclusive education for males and females.
- Educational policies need to foster environments that encourage autonomy and emotional resilience, especially in fields where females are underrepresented. In addition, it is crucial to promote more inclusive and stereotype-free education from the earliest stages in order to reduce gender gaps in access and success in STEM and non-STEM fields.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Questionnaire Used in the Study
Dimension | Item | |
---|---|---|
Coping with difficulties | 15 | The circumstances determine the final results of my studies (learning, grades), whether they are good or bad. |
20 | Bad mood/Irritability. | |
21 | Anxiety/nervousness. | |
22 | Apathy/Discouragement/Reluctance. | |
23 | Difficulties in attention and concentration. | |
25 | Poor expectations of academic achievement or success. | |
26 | Low interest of classmates in learning. | |
27 | The university lacks resources for the students. | |
28 | Difficulties at home in concentrating on studying (home environment, room to study, etc.). | |
Effort | 1 | I study with perseverance and regularity. |
3 | I study and concentrate hardest under the pressure of an upcoming exam. | |
9 | I am able to manage my time and study environment. | |
10 | I am able to delay the satisfaction of desires or impulses. | |
12 | Frequent daily reading (including all sorts of texts). | |
24 | Poor consistency in my study habits. | |
Autonomy | 4 | I like to develop my own theories and I pay attention to whether there are real examples to support or refute my theories. |
5 | I search for useful and practical applications of new knowledge. | |
8 | I read complementary texts and watch videos that are not required for the exams, for my own knowledge. | |
13 | I organise and integrate information gathered from different sources in my learning. | |
14 | I search for evidence of my theories. | |
Understanding/Career Interest | 6 | When I study, I focus on understanding the concepts more than anything else. |
7 | I memorize the concepts and theories without needing to understand everything perfectly. | |
11 | When studying, I focus primarily on relating ideas and concepts. | |
18 | The main focus of my studies is professional development for my career. | |
19 | I know all the profiles and professional prospects of my course with a view to my future career. | |
Social Context | 2 | I believe that studying in a group helps me to solve questions that I cannot solve by myself. |
16 | I study in in spaces provided at the university. | |
17 | I study at home. |
- Parental Care:
- −
- I think that my parents tried to make my adolescence stimulating, interesting and instructive (for instance by giving me good books, arranging for me to go to holiday camps, taking me to clubs).
- −
- When faced with a difficult task. I felt supported by my parents.
- Parental Control:My parents would punish me strictly, even for trifles (small offenses).
- Parental Protection:
- Male.
- Female.
- I prefer not to answer
- F (grade below 5)
- E-D-C (grades between 5–6)
- B (grades between 7–8)
- A (grades between 9–10)
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1. Coping with Difficulties | 2. Effort | 3. Autonomy | 4. Understanding/Career Interest | 5. Social Context | 6. Bad Mood/Irritability | 7. Anxiety | 8. Apathy/Demotivation | 9. Lack of Attention | 10. Poor Achievement Expectations | 11. Academic performance | 12. Care Father | 13. Care Mother | 14. Control Father | 15. Control Mother | 16. Protection Father | 17. Protection Mother | 18. Educational Level—Father | 19. Educational Level—Mother | 20. Family Economic Levels | Ω | M | SD | Asymmetry | Kurtosis | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | -- | 0.36 ** | 0.05 ** | 0.24 ** | −0.06 ** | −0.67 ** | −0.62 ** | −0.71 ** | −0.65 ** | −0.68 ** | 0.18 ** | 0.11 ** | 0.21 ** | −0.21 ** | −0.23 ** | −0.15 ** | −0.11 ** | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.11 ** | 0.79 | 2.64 | 0.061 | −0.23 | −0.50 |
2 | −− | 0.26 ** | 0.30 ** | −0.09 ** | −0.15 ** | −0.12 ** | −0.33 ** | −0.43 ** | −0.26 ** | 0.25 ** | 0.10 ** | 0.09 ** | −0.08 ** | −0.12 ** | −0.02 | −0.04 | −0.06 ** | −0.06 ** | 0.02 | 0.72 | 2.44 | 0.61 | −0.01 | −0.58 | |
3 | −− | 0.43 ** | 0.06 ** | −0.02 | −0.06 | −0.11 ** | −0.05 ** | −0.07 ** | 0.18 ** | −0.03 | −0.06 ** | 0.06 ** | 0.09 ** | 0.09 ** | 0.08 ** | −0.06 ** | −0.02 | −0.08 ** | 0.72 | 2.51 | 0.66 | 0.09 | −0.54 | ||
4 | −− | 0.05 * | −0.11 ** | −0.09 ** | −0.25 ** | −0.16 ** | −0.25 ** | 0.18 ** | 0.05 ** | 0.07 ** | −0.02 | −0.04 | −0.01 | 0.04 | −0.01 | −0.01 | −0.00 | 0.59 | 3.09 | 0.52 | −0.64 | 0.47 | |||
5 | −− | −0.02 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.05 * | 0.02 | −0.18 ** | −0.04 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.03 | −0.01 | 0.04 | 0.05 * | 0.09 ** | 0.01 | 0.66 | 2.04 | 0.71 | 0.57 | −0.25 | ||||
6 | −− | 0.48 ** | 0.47 ** | 0.33 ** | 0.35 ** | −0.05 * | −0.04 | −0.11 ** | 0.12 ** | 0.13 ** | 0.13 ** | 0.08 ** | −0.01 | −0.02 | −0.03 | 2.41 | 1.04 | 0.12 | −1.16 | ||||||
7 | −− | 0.43 ** | 0.30 ** | 0.36 ** | −0.07 ** | −0.01 | −0.10 ** | 0.11 ** | 0.12 ** | 0.13 ** | 0.10 ** | 0.02 | −0.03 | −0.06 ** | 3.04 | 1.03 | −0.70 | −0.76 | |||||||
8 | −− | 0.46 ** | 0.41 ** | −0.11 ** | −0.07 ** | −0.14 ** | 0.14 ** | 0.15 ** | 0.18 ** | 0.05 * | 0.07 ** | 0.02 | −0.05 * | 2.91 | 1.05 | −0.50 | −1.01 | ||||||||
9 | −− | 0.37 ** | −0.14 ** | −0.06 ** | −0.14 ** | 0.13 ** | 0.14 ** | 0.10 ** | 0.07 ** | 0.04 * | 0.02 | −0.02 | 2.65 | 1.09 | −0.14 | −1.28 | |||||||||
10 | −− | −0.23 ** | −0.11 ** | −0.14 ** | 0.16 ** | 0.17 ** | 0.09 ** | 0.08 ** | −0.06 ** | −0.06 ** | −0.09 ** | 2.26 | 1.10 | 0.33 | −1.21 | ||||||||||
11 | −− | 0.07 ** | 0.06 ** | 0.06 ** | −0.05 ** | 0.00 | −0.05 * | 00.03 | 0.02 | 0.06 ** | 2.01 | 1.04 | 0.64 | −0.84 | |||||||||||
12 | −− | 0.56 ** | −0.21 ** | −0.18 ** | −0.03 | −0.09 ** | 0.30 ** | 0.19 ** | 0.24 ** | 2.78 | 0.99 | −0.36 | −1.06 | ||||||||||||
13 | −− | −0.19 ** | −0.21 ** | −0.13 ** | 0.03 | 0.22 ** | 0.32 ** | 0.29 ** | 2.57 | 1.03 | −0.12 | −1.24 | |||||||||||||
14 | −− | 0.56 ** | 0.35 ** | 0.24 ** | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.07 ** | 1.61 | 0.92 | 1.35 | 0.68 | ||||||||||||||
15 | −− | 0.26 ** | 0.33 ** | −0.02 | 0.01 | −0.09 ** | 1.62 | 0.93 | 1.33 | 0.60 | |||||||||||||||
16 | −− | 0.57 ** | −0.02 | −0.04 | −0.05 * | 2.17 | 1.07 | 0.42 | −1.10 | ||||||||||||||||
17 | −0.04* | −0.01 | −0.01 | 2.00 | 1.01 | 0.64 | −0.75 | ||||||||||||||||||
18 | −− | 0.55 ** | 0.37 ** | 2.38 | 0.70 | −0.68 | −0.74 | ||||||||||||||||||
19 | −− | 0.40 ** | 2.36 | 0.71 | −0.64 | −0.80 | |||||||||||||||||||
20 | 3.01 | 0.81 | −0.29 | 0.39 |
Range | Male | Female | Significance | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | M | SD | N | M | SD | |||
Effort | 1–4 | 636 | 2.48 | 0.64 | 1.733 | 2.43 | 0.61 | F(3.35) * |
Autonomy | 1–4 | 650 | 2.64 | 0.66 | 1.757 | 2.46 | 0.65 | F(34.04) *** |
Understanding/Career interest | 1–4 | 653 | 3.12 | 0.52 | 1.765 | 3.08 | 0.52 | F(3.23) |
Context | 1–4 | 656 | 2.02 | 0.74 | 1.773 | 2.05 | 0.70 | F(0.51) |
Coping with Difficulties | 1–4 | 648 | 2.80 | 0.61 | 1.758 | 2.59 | 0.60 | F(56.31) *** |
Bad mood/Irritability | 1–4 | 658 | 2.14 | 1.00 | 1.780 | 2.51 | 1.04 | F(60.78) *** |
Anxiety | 1–4 | 658 | 2.61 | 1.08 | 1.780 | 3.20 | 0.96 | F(170.40) *** |
Apathy/Demotivation | 1–4 | 657 | 2.73 | 1.08 | 1.781 | 2.98 | 1.03 | F(27.94) *** |
Lack of attention | 1–4 | 659 | 2.48 | 1.08 | 1.781 | 2.71 | 1.08 | F(22.21) *** |
Low achievement expectations | 1–4 | 660 | 1.87 | 0.97 | 1.781 | 2.06 | 1.06 | F(16.64) *** |
Males Coping with Difficulties | Non-Standarized Coefficients | Standarized Coefficients | t | Sig. | F | R2 | Sig. |
B | Beta | ||||||
(Constant) | 2.86 | 15.11 | 0.07 | <0.001 | |||
Maternal Control | −0.09 | −0.13 | −2.74 | 0.00 | |||
Maternal Care | 0.08 | 0.13 | 3.21 | 0.00 | |||
Paternal Control | −0.08 | −0.11 | −2.38 | 0.02 | |||
Effort | |||||||
(Constant) | 2.59 | 48.17 | <0.001 | 6.62 | 0.01 | 0.01 | |
Maternal Control | −0.08 | −0.10 | −2.57 | 0.010 | |||
Autonomy | |||||||
(Constant) | 2.47 | 41.61 | <0.001 | 10.29 | 0.01 | 0.001 | |
Paternal Protection | 0.08 | 0.13 | 3.20 | 0.001 | |||
Learning by Understanding/Career-focused | |||||||
(Constant) | 3.03 | 64.46 | <0.001 | 5.32 | 0.01 | 0.021 | |
Paternal Protection | 0.05 | 0.09 | 2.30 | 0.021 | |||
Females Coping with Difficulties | B | Beta | t | Sig. | F | R2 | Sig. |
(Constant) | 2.59 | 46.49 | <0.001 | 62.34 | 0.10 | <0.001 | |
Maternal Care | 0.11 | 0.18 | 7.82 | <0.001 | |||
Maternal Control | −0.10 | −0.16 | −6.84 | <0.001 | |||
Paternal Protection | −0.05 | −0.09 | −3.99 | <0.001 | |||
Effort | |||||||
(Constant) | 2.34 | 42.46 | <0.001 | 20.67 | 0.02 | <0.001 | |
Paternal Care | 0.06 | 0.10 | 4.17 | <0.001 | |||
Maternal Control | −0.06 | −0.10 | −3.96 | <0.001 | |||
Autonomy | |||||||
(Constant) | 2.28 | 56.54 | 0.000 | 11.40 | 0.01 | <0.001 | |
Maternal Control | 0.05 | 0.078 | 3.12 | 0.002 | |||
Paternal Protection | 0.04 | 0.07 | 2.64 | 0.008 | |||
Learning by Understanding/Career-focused | |||||||
(Constant) | 2.96 | 87.59 | 0.000 | 13.62 | 0.01 | <0.001 | |
Maternal Care | 0.05 | 0.09 | 3.69 | <0.001 |
STEM | N | Mean | SD | ANOVA | ||||
df | F | p | ||||||
Coping with Difficulties | Male | 358 | 2.80 | 0.60 | Between groups | 1 | 21.49 | <0.001 |
Female | 848 | 2.63 | 0.57 | Within groups | 1.204 | |||
Effort | Male | 346 | 2.41 | 0.63 | Between groups | 1 | 0.21 | 0.650 |
Female | 825 | 2.43 | 0.59 | Within groups | 1.169 | |||
Autonomy | Male | 354 | 2.48 | 0.59 | Between groups | 1 | 8.58 | 0.003 |
Female | 843 | 2.36 | 0.63 | Within groups | 1.195 | |||
Learning by Understanding/Career-focused | Male | 361 | 3.08 | 0.50 | Between groups | 1 | 0.28 | 0.594 |
Female | 851 | 3.09 | 0.50 | Within groups | 1.210 | |||
Social Context | Male | 362 | 2.09 | 0.72 | Between groups | 1 | 3.64 | 0.057 |
Female | 853 | 2.18 | 0.71 | Within groups | 1.213 | |||
NON-STEM | N | Mean | SD | ANOVA | ||||
df | F | p | ||||||
Coping with Difficulties | Male | 229 | 2.51 | 0.58 | Between groups | 1 | 30.29 | <0.001 |
Female | 804 | 2.34 | 0.55 | Within groups | 1.031 | |||
Effort | Male | 229 | 2.35 | 0.59 | Between groups | 1 | 10.95 | <0.001 |
Female | 798 | 2.37 | 0.58 | Within groups | 0.1025 | |||
Autonomy | Male | 231 | 2.33 | 0.57 | Between groups | 1 | 29.45 | <0.001 |
Female | 806 | 2.29 | 0.61 | Within groups | 1.035 | |||
Learning by Understanding/Career-focused | Male | 229 | 2.98 | 0.49 | Between groups | 1 | 10.86 | 0.001 |
Female | 805 | 3.01 | 0.50 | Within groups | 1.032 | |||
Social Context | Male | 232 | 2.07 | 0.68 | Between groups | 1.033 | 0.05 | 0.82 |
Female | 809 | 2.11 | 0.66 | Within groups | 1 |
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Elvira-Zorzo, M.N.; Gandarillas, M.Á.; Martí-González, M. Psychosocial Differences Between Female and Male Students in Learning Patterns and Mental Health-Related Indicators in STEM vs. Non-STEM Fields. Soc. Sci. 2025, 14, 71. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14020071
Elvira-Zorzo MN, Gandarillas MÁ, Martí-González M. Psychosocial Differences Between Female and Male Students in Learning Patterns and Mental Health-Related Indicators in STEM vs. Non-STEM Fields. Social Sciences. 2025; 14(2):71. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14020071
Chicago/Turabian StyleElvira-Zorzo, María Natividad, Miguel Ángel Gandarillas, and Mariacarla Martí-González. 2025. "Psychosocial Differences Between Female and Male Students in Learning Patterns and Mental Health-Related Indicators in STEM vs. Non-STEM Fields" Social Sciences 14, no. 2: 71. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14020071
APA StyleElvira-Zorzo, M. N., Gandarillas, M. Á., & Martí-González, M. (2025). Psychosocial Differences Between Female and Male Students in Learning Patterns and Mental Health-Related Indicators in STEM vs. Non-STEM Fields. Social Sciences, 14(2), 71. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14020071