Gender-Based Violence Prevalence, Psychosocial Effects, and Coping Mechanisms Among Refugee Women in Kebribeyah Camp, Ethiopia: Baseline for Interventions to Prevent Psychosocial Challenges

Abstract

The study investigated the prevalence of gender-based violence, its psychological effects, and coping mechanisms among refugees in Ethiopia’s Kebribeyah Camp, which is believed to be the least recognized issue for female refugees. Owing to the loss of a social network and power, refugee women are the most vulnerable to different forms of gender-based violence and psychosocial challenges. The data collection and analysis were performed using a cross-sectional explanatory, quantitative design. The study involved 357 women refugees who were eligible for the study and found that there was a prevalence of 10.98% for GBV. In this study, it was determined that the most prevalent forms of GBV are psychological, physical, and sexual forms, respectively, which require immediate interventions. Irrational verbal and physical violence against women by men is identified as a signal for sexual violence. The mediation analysis examines the relationship between GBV acts, psychosocial challenges, and survivors’ coping strategies. GBV was found to be a significant predictor of both psychological and social difficulties, accounting for a significant variance in psychological difficulties (71%) and phobias (59%), and a substantial portion of social challenges (35%). GBV accounts for 82% of the variance in coping strategies. The study deduces the multidimensional pathway of the adverse effects of GBV among survivors, and suggests a combination of interventions to address GBV acts, psychological challenges, social challenges, and psychological phobias through an intersectional approach.

1. Introduction

This research uncovered the prevalence of GBV among women refugees at the Kebribeyah Refugee Camp and survivors’ psychosocial challenges and coping mechanisms, highlighting the necessity for raising awareness about these often hidden issues and calling for immediate intervention. Intended to serve as a baseline for intervention into psychosocial challenges of GBV, the study recognizes that GBV among women is both a gross violation of human rights and a public health issue worldwide (United Nations Population Fund 2017).

GBV has been a global concern for decades. According to Belay et al. (2021), GBV is a common phenomenon in crisis-hit environments. However, this global human rights violation is often underreported, particularly among women and girls who are often victims in such circumstances. Globally, Syria, Venezuela, Ukraine, and Afghanistan account for the largest share of the world’s outflow of refugees (UNHCR 2024c).

Refugees face a multitude of interconnected challenges due to the loss of power, weakened social networks, and cumulative hardships experienced during the displacement process (both during forced detachment from their home countries and during travel and resettlement). Among these challenges is the increased vulnerability of women and girls to various GBV forms, which often occur among displaced communities and in the contexts where social networks and protection systems are weak (Geraldine and Hoare 2007).

Women’s rights violations are hazardous in the majority of the world’s humanitarian settings; women and girls experience sexual violence, exclusion from socioeconomic activities, and coercion into prostitution (Cheluget 2023).

Likewise, the ecological model emphasizes how societal, relational, individual, and community factors interact to shape GBV risks and responses (UNHCR 2024b). In order to examine GBV situations and address the particular vulnerabilities of displaced communities, the model places a strong emphasis on integrated, multi-sectoral approaches to GBV prevention and response.

Yacob-Haliso (2020) stated that resettlement can be the start of a fresh environment, giving women the chance to break free from historically restrictive gender roles. However, it may be a source of marginalization and the start of uncommon encounters with prejudice and stereotyping. Gender-based violence thrives in the chaotic aftermath of displacement due to the disintegration of social structures and the weakening of the rule of law, making refugee women and girls more susceptible to abuse and exploitation (Giles and Hyndman 2004).

Given the structure and arrangement of refugees as contributing factors to GBV among African women refugees, the UNHCR’s mandate includes refugee protection and support, with a special emphasis on GBV prevention and response. The UNHCR Policy on Preventing and Responding to Sexual and Gender Violence highlights the organization’s commitment, yet its successful implementation is frequently hampered by resource constraints and operational issues (Crisp 2002).

The Horn of Africa is extremely vulnerable to climate change, with recurrent droughts and floods exacerbating the preexisting vulnerabilities of refugees. Climate-induced displacement increases competition for fewer resources, raises the potential of conflict, and disproportionately impacts women, who are frequently responsible for collecting water and food (UN Environment Program 2020).

The intertwining realities of formal and informal refugee structures, the cultural norms of both host communities and refugee groups, and the deeply worrisome incidence of GBV all have a substantial impact on the plight of African women refugees (Cheluget 2023). The ecological model explains the multi-layered prevention initiatives by explaining gender-based violence as the outcome of interacting elements at the individual, relational, community, and societal levels (Heise 1998; World Health Organization 2002).

Individual sensitivity to committing acts of violence can be increased by biological variables and personal experience, such as childhood trauma or substance addiction. Relationship dynamics, power disparities, and reliance may encourage abuse, and they are considered at the relationship level. Poverty, social isolation, and a lack of institutional assistance are some of the community-level variables that might sustain GBV (UNHCR 2025).

Intersectionality theory emphasizes how experiences of violence and exclusion are exacerbated by intersecting identities, such as gender, race, and immigration status, particularly for refugee women (Crenshaw 1991; Refugees International 2017).

Systematic discrimination, gender inequity, and cultural norms that normalize or justify violence are all societal-level impacts. By acknowledging that structural and cultural settings influence individual experiences of violence differentially across social groups, this paradigm is consistent with intersectionality. A more comprehensive understanding of GBV and the creation of multi-level interventions that address underlying causes and foster resilience are made possible by the integration of both ecological and intersectionality paradigms (Heise 1998; World Health Organization 2002).

Ethiopia, which has a long history of hosting refugees, is Africa’s third-largest host nation, providing humanitarian aid to 926,471 refugees (53% women and girls; 47% male), mainly from South Sudan, Somalia, and Eritrea (UNHCR Ethiopia 2023b). They live in camps and settlements throughout various parts of the country.

Refugee women are frequently excluded from decision-making processes affecting their personal lives and the larger refugee community. Their voices and perspectives are rarely incorporated into the design and implementation of humanitarian programs, a situation which reduces their effectiveness and sustainability (Refugees International 2017).

In developing countries, refugee women’s mental health is profoundly impacted by the trauma of conflict, displacement, and GBV. However, mental health services are few, frequently stigmatized, and culturally unsuitable (World Health Organization 2019). The historical traumatic experiences of war, torture, loss, forced separation from family, gender-based violence, and exposure to rape make women refugees extremely vulnerable to long-term psychosocial problems, leading to mental health diagnoses (Klineberg et al. 2006).

One of the most violent forms of GBV is rape, which occurs in a refugee camp, and female survivors of this violence most often experience prolonged physical, social, and psychological consequences (World Health Organization 2024). Lausi et al. (2024) noted that GBV survivors frequently suffer from severe deficits in interpersonal trust, emotional regulation, and cognitive functioning.

Yacob-Haliso (2020) discovered that GBV victims’ severe trauma and identity disruption require psychological therapies. Similarly, Wanjiru (2021) emphasized the long-term effects of GBV, such as suicidal thoughts, anxiety, sadness, and PTSD, especially in situations with little social support.

Regarding social dimensions, GBV survivor women are often afraid of additional violence and withdraw from normal social activities such as attending school, engaging in social life, going to the market, and participating in politics. They also have difficulty finding a partner, face unwanted pregnancy, and encounter stigmatization and economic challenges. According to Hossain et al. (2021), depending on the intensity and circumstances of the abuse, GBV survivors frequently use a combination of avoidant, emotional, and problem-focused coping strategies. Coping methods are the mental and behavioral techniques people employ to deal with stress, hardship, or tragedy.

Coping becomes a crucial psychological process that affects survivors’ recuperation, resiliency, and reintegration into society in the setting of gender-based violence (GBV). Due to the current national and regional security conditions in Ethiopia, in most areas of the country, refugee camps present GBV issues that are possibly volatile, uneven, and in need of careful consideration.

Ethiopia’s Somali Region is one of the biggest refugee destinations in Ethiopia. In this region, refugees share multiple identities with host communities in terms of ethnicity, culture, and religion. These shared socio-cultural identities have been reported to have allowed peaceful coexistence and greater integration compared with displacement settings elsewhere in the country.

Despite these favorable conditions, personal observations and direct experiences show that refugees in the region in general, and women in particular, encounter multiple challenges. Refugee women in the region face additional challenges that are heavily influenced by their gender and the structural context of relocation that shapes GBV factors. These issues are frequently exacerbated by preexisting gender-related inequities and vulnerabilities.

Following the Gambella Region of Ethiopia, which is the largest refugee-hosting camp in the nation with 373,294 refugees, the second-largest is the Somali Region, which has 249,343 refugees, hosted in three camps: Kebribeyah (16,701), Aw-Barre (12,686), and Sheder (12,895) (UNHCR 2022). Because of its comparatively large refugee population and the documented frequency of gender-based violence (GBV) concerns, Kebribeyah Camp was chosen for this study as a crucial location for investigating the psychosocial effects and coping strategies among refugee women.

The Kebribeyah Refugee Camp, in the Jigjiga District of Ethiopia’s Somali Region, is the oldest refugee settlement in the region (UN Environment Program 2020). Being relatively one of the largest refugee camps in the country, it hosts a significant number of refugees in the Somali Regional State, with women and children accounting for over 80% of the population.

Similarly, to refugees in other settlements across the region, the Kebribeyah refugee population endures a range of strategic, socioeconomic, spatial, and environmental challenges (UN Environment Program 2020). Constituting the majority of refugees in the camp and shouldering the social responsibility to fulfill the day-to-day living needs of their families, women and girls are particularly vulnerable to multifaceted challenges, including structural and legal challenges, protection and safety risks such as sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), and socioeconomic hardships.

In the light of this background, this study sought to investigate the GBV prevalence, survivors’ psychosocial challenges, and the coping mechanisms used among women refugees in the Kebribeyah Refugee Camp, to establish a baseline that informs intervention strategies and the prevention of associated psychosocial challenges.

1.1. Statement of the Problem

GBV is a global social phenomenon affecting the lives and health of women, with the severity of the problem particularly heightened in fragile, conflict-ridden countries and refugee camps (UN Women 2023a). According to the UNHCR (2022) report, in some countries, GBV incidences in refugee camps are significantly higher than those observed among host populations. UNHCR statistics on GBV occurrences recorded in refugee camps regularly and consistently reveal that women and girls are disproportionately affected.

Several forms of GBV occur in situations where communities are uprooted, and social networks and protection systems are weak (Geraldine and Hoare 2007). According to UNHCR, GBV is most acute in the majority of refugee camps worldwide. Women refugees are usually raped, abused, excluded from socioeconomic activities, and forced into prostitution (UNHCR 2022).

Refugee women are frequently subjected to severe violence while fleeing their home countries and in their refugee camps or urban areas. Further, according to Berry (2005), adapting to a new culture can be difficult, especially for women refugees who may have different gender roles, expectations, and social standards. Language hurdles, discrimination, and misunderstanding of the new culture can all contribute to acculturation stress.

Women may also face tensions between their traditional cultural beliefs and those of the host community. Consequently, they may experience an increased likelihood of depression, anxiety, and other mental health issues. Such experiences may also impede their ability to integrate into the new society and receive essential services.

In their study conducted in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Logova et al. (2020) revealed that women refugees frequently faced GBV while seeking survival, securing legal status, or accessing necessary resources. Consequently, survivors endured physical and psychological suffering and disruption of their social well-being as a result of stigma and disrespect.

Moreover, a report by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA 2023) implies that women and girls in conflict areas and refugee camps experience human rights abuses, including physical and sexual violence. Women and girls are disproportionately affected by GBV, a widespread human rights violation in displacement contexts (UN Environment Program 2020). This unfavorable condition also reveals a high prevalence of GBV among refugee populations, a situation that seriously impacts their social, emotional, and physical well-being.

While these global and regional patterns of GBV in refugee settings appear to have been well documented, the lived experiences of GBV survivors and the specific psychosocial challenges they face in Ethiopian refugee camps are not well understood. Despite prior research identifying important risk factors for GBV among refugee women, including poverty, lack of access to resources, and social isolation, there remains a clear lack of context-specific data on the psychological distress these women experience.

Additionally, there are limited data on the efficacy of current GBV preventive and response initiatives within Ethiopian displacement settings. The existing literature mainly addresses incidences and features of domestic violence against Ethiopian non-refugee women in general. Women refugees are among the most vulnerable groups often exposed to diverse forms of GBV and their enormous psychosocial predicament, a situation which requires a through and systematic investigation.

However, the nature and dynamics of GBV among women refugees in Ethiopia and the major forms of GBV, including their potential psychological impacts on women refugees, remain to be among the least studied and understood aspects of GBV. Although there are some studies paying particular attention to women in refugee camps, they largely focus on GBV and its physical health-related consequences. Furthermore, only few studies have examined GBV prevalence in relatively settled refugee camps like Kebribeyah, where the rate of incidence remains high, calling for urgent and targeted interventions.

There is also limited consensus among existing studies regarding the variables addressed in this study, which examines forms of GBV and the challenges experienced by women victims of GBV in refugee camps. The findings of these studies also vary greatly depending on study time, research context, study population, and methodological approach.

In the light of these circumstances, this study seeks to address the gaps identified in previous studies on GBV with particular emphasis on the case of the Kebribeyeh Refugee Camp in the Somali Regional State. The study aims to examine the prevalence of GBV, explore its psychosocial effects on women refugees, assess their coping mechanisms, and identify culturally relevant prevention and support strategies.

1.2. Objectives of the Study

1.2.1. General Objective

The general objective of the study is to examine the status of GBV among women refugees in humanitarian settings in general, and in the Kebribeyah Refugee Camp in particular, with a focus on its prevalence, its effects on survivors’ psychosocial well-being, and coping mechanisms used by survivors, so as to establish a baseline for the prevention of related psychosocial challenges.

1.2.2. Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the study are as follows:

• Explore the current status of GBV incidents against women refugees;
• Examine the psychosocial effects of GBV on survivors;
• Scrutinize the effects of GBV on survivors’ coping mechanisms.

1.3. Scopes of the Study

The conceptual scope of the study is delimited to examining GBV within a humanitarian setting, with particular emphasis on its prevalence, its psychosocial effects, and the coping mechanisms employed by women survivors. The study seeks to provide a baseline for gaining insights into GBV and its associated psychological challenges, with a view to informing prevention strategies. In terms of setting, the study is limited to the Kebribeyah Refugee Camp, which is one of the largest refugee camps in Ethiopia, located in the Somali Regional State. In line with the study objectives and to ensure the collection of timely and consistent data, the researcher used a cross-sectional data collection approach during the 2023/2024 academic year.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Design and Approach

As research design is guided by the research purpose (Creswell and Plano Clark 2007), and given that the present study primarily aims to describe the existing prevalence of GBV within a humanitarian setting and examine its effects on survivors’ psychosocial well-being, the study adopted a design that enables establishing a baseline for the prevention of psychosocial risks among GBV women survivors.

The study used a cross-sectional quantitative explanatory research design to investigate the relationships between GBV, psychosocial outcomes, and coping mechanisms among the target population. This design is preferred for examining associations among variables at a single point in time and for identifying statistically significant patterns and predictors.

According to Palinkas et al. (2015), an explanatory design is useful for understanding relationships among variables or explaining unexpected results discovered in the quantitative phase. In the context of this study, it helps to document and summarize the patterns of GBV in a population and explain the relationships between variables. The approach was selected for its advantage of facilitating the collection of data from a large, diverse sample, enhancing the generalizability of findings and supporting evidence-based policy and intervention development. Considering Ruth D. May-os’s (2023) argument, the researcher believed that, despite its limitations, focusing exclusively on a quantitative method would ensure the study’s objectivity, replicability, and statistical rigor, particularly due to the sensitivity of GBV as a research topic.

2.2. Population

The study was conducted in the Kebribeyah Refugee Camp, located in the Somali Regional State of Ethiopia. The camp hosts over 16,701 refugees who are displaced primarily from Somalia. Despite provision of various community services and general protection including GBV support centers by UNHCR and ARRA, various impediments such as resource constraints, cultural sensitivities, and limited psychosocial infrastructure continue to hinder GBV prevention and response initiatives (UN Women 2023b).

In light of these contextual realities and the researcher’s familiarity with the livelihood of the affected populations, the study population was delineated to throw light on the problem under investigation. Accordingly, the target population for this study consisted of all women refugees aged 18 years and above and residing in the Kebribeyah Refugee Camp. Thus, to be included in the questionnaire survey, the respondents had to be women aged 18 years or above during the study period, hold refugee or asylum seeker status, and live in the Kebribeyah Refugee Camp. Respondents were carefully and systematically selected to represent the larger population of the study.

2.3. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size

The study used a systematic random sampling technique for selecting the respondents. The size of the representative respondents of the quantitative data was determined by the size of the study population. According to the UNHCR Regional Refugee Statistics Database for Ethiopia (UNHCR Ethiopia 2023a), a total of 16,701 (8701 women and 8000 men) are settled in the Kebribeyah Refugee Camp. Among this population, women above 18 years of age account for 5751 (54.6%). In household counts, 2911 household refugee populations are hosted in the camp.

To determine the size of survey respondents, the Krejcie and Morgan (1970) sample size determination table was used. According to this sample size determination table, if the total eligible population size is less than 5000, a sample size of 357 is considered sufficient. The study used the value required to generate a +5% margin of error (95% confidence level). Therefore, from a total of 4751 eligible study population of women refugees, a sample of 357 individuals was taken as representative for the study.

To secure the representativeness of the participants, a simple random sampling technique was employed during recruitment. According to UNHCR’s Global Trends Report on refugee housing conditions, household sizes, and demographic composition, assuming a maximum of two adult women per family is reasonable (UNHCR 2018). Therefore, considering the housing conditions of refugees and trends obtained from the relevant literature, the researcher assumed a maximum of two eligible women refugees per household.

Hence, a total of 2911 refugee households in the Kebribeyah Refugee Camp were taken as a sampling frame. To obtain the required sample size of 357 study participants, 180 households were considered for inclusion in the study.

Accordingly, all households were allocated code numbers based on the alphabetical ascending of the household head’s name. The first household was selected randomly, and the next K-th or, based on calculated interval, 8th households were selected continuously until the required sample size was reached. This sampling technique was intended to generate baseline data for the prevention of GBV-associated psychosocial challenges.

2.4. Source of Data

Both primary and secondary data were used for the study. Primary data were obtained through questionnaires. Secondary data were collected from relevant scholarly works, records of governmental and non-governmental humanitarian service institutions, Kebribeyah Refugee Camp working documents, study participants’ files, GBV-specific service delivery project statistics, and humanitarian service records and reports. Additionally, relevant academic sources such as research studies, theoretical concept documents, policy documents, working manuals and guidelines, and other secondary descriptions were consulted and used as sources of data.

2.5. Instruments and Procedures of Data Collection

In order to achieve the research objectives, data collection was carried out following these procedures. In the first place, a structured questionnaire consisting of four parts and 91 items related to demographic characteristics of respondents, GBV prevalence, psychosocial challenges, and coping mechanisms was developed based on the GBV-related literature and standardized questionnaires related to the issues under investigation.

GBV prevalence was assessed using the items adopted from the draft GBV survey questionnaire developed by RHRC Consortium (2004), specifically from Guide Section Five, sub-items sixty-nine to ninety-three, which are meant to evaluate GBV frequency and types of GBV acts against women in a refugee camp. The instrument was preferred for its benefits in measuring different dimensions of GBV acts, assessing the contextual nature, scope, and effects of GBV in the study setting, and boosting the potential of research findings to inform intervention mechanisms through increasing international understanding of the adverse consequences of GBV (RHRC Consortium 2004). Considering these strengths, the researcher believed that the instrument is compatible with the intended study. However, the assessment tools were contextually adapted, revised, and adjusted to fit the specific local situations of the study setting.

Next, the psychosocial effects of GBV were measured using a standardized instrument, that is, the 90-item Self-Report Symptom Checklist (SCL-90-R), which was adapted from Derogatis (1994). However, the items were contextualized, adapted, and adjusted so as to measure the psychological and social state of mind of GBV survivor women refugees. This instrument helps to measure a broad range of psychosocial challenges and symptoms of psychopathology stemming from GBV. The instrument has been employed in different clinical and cultural settings comprising several trauma survivors, and its effectiveness has been empirically tested (Zeleke et al. 2025). The five-point distress scale, ranging from “not at all” (0 score) to “extremely” (4 scores), was used to measure the symptom level of each item.

Regarding assessment of coping mechanisms used by GBV survivors, the item adapted from the draft GBV survey questionnaire defined in (RHRC Consortium 2004), Gender-based Violence guide section five, sub-items eighty-nine and ninety, consists of 24 measuring scales meant to evaluate gender-based violence survivors’ coping mechanisms.

The questionnaire was initially developed in English and then translated into Somali. For the purpose of ensuring consistency in translation, the Somali version of the questionnaire was translated back to English.

Before the questionnaire was administered, approvals were obtained from concerned officials and camp administrators. A team consisting of 5 female data collectors and 1 supervisor who speak Somali and are familiar with the culture were recruited and trained to carry out their assigned tasks. The questionnaire was then administered by data collectors and supervisors, under overall supervision of the researcher. For illiterate respondents, the questionnaire was read to them face-to-face read by data collectors and their responses were recorded. For the secondary data, relevant governmental and non-governmental documents and reports, camp-specific GBV-related records, and the relevant literature were reviewed to supplement the primary data and provide the context for the study.

2.6. Reliability and Validity of Instruments

Reliability Test

Validated instruments enable us to obtain valid and reliable data (Blischke and Murthy 2003). Hence, in this research, as illustrated in Table 1, the validity of the tools of data collection includes the questionnaire is established. Accordingly, at first, the subject matter experts (SMEs) consisting of 12 members from psychology, social work, and sociology, who were MA and above academic status holders, were identified and selected from Arsi University, Ethiopian Civil Service University, Oromia State University, and Oromia Police College.

Table 1. Reliability coefficient of GBV prevalence, psychosocial challenges, and coping mechanisms.

Sub-Scales	Sub-Dimensions	Number of Items	Cronbach’s A
GBV		12	0.81
Psychological challenges	Depression	10	0.87
	Anxiety	9	0.83
	Distress	8	0.91
	Phobia (Social anxiety disorder)	7	0.84
Social challenges	Interpersonal sensibility	9	0.95
Coping mechanisms	Task-centered	9	0.73
	Emotional-centered	10	0.89
	Avoidance	6	0.88

According to Lawshe (1975), if the majority of panelists indicate the essentiality of the items, the item is considered to have content validity. Thus, the panelists were invited to rate the items using a three-point scale (1 = not necessary, 2 = useful, but not essential, and 3 = essential) since the essential items are considered best representatives (Johnson and Johnson 2009).

As Lawshe (1975) originally established the formula, the content validity ratio (CVR) is as follows:

CVR = ne-N/2

where

ne = Number of panelists indicating essentiality of items;

N = Total number of panelists.

Therefore, the calculated value of the CVR takes on values between −1.00 and +1.00, and 0.00 indicates that half of the panelist population believed that the item is essential and the instrument is valid.

Johnson and Johnson (2009) recommended that the high positive CVR values clearly indicate the essentiality of the items, while the negative values indicate that the items would be removed or reworded, and the items only meeting the minimum value of this principle retained, and that the rest should be dropped.

Accordingly, the questionnaire given to the panelists and the computed value of the CVR demonstrated 0.53 and determined that the instrument is valid.

Also, the panelists invited qualitative comments on the instruments with language improvements, rephrasing and rewording, and re-arrangement of items’ order toward the questionnaires. Accordingly, the instruments improved, and the first English version instruments were translated into a comfortable language (Somali and English forwards and backwards) for the participants and data collectors, respectively, during data collection.

A reliability coefficient of α ≥ 0.70 is considered adequate in indicating a high level of internal consistency for the scale that is used, and α ≤ 0.50 is not acceptable. Pallant (2013) argues that if the statistical alpha is equal to or above 0.70, the questionnaire scale is considered reliable.

According to Neuman (1997), the minimum sample size of (n ≥ 20) is determined as normal for a pilot test. The internal consistency of GBV, psychosocial challenges, and coping mechanisms sub-scales was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha. The results indicated that all scales of measurement demonstrated above 0.73 to 0.95 alpha results, suggesting high internal coherence between items. The finding supports the use of all intended scales for the study.

2.7. Techniques of Data Analysis

The data obtained in this study were analyzed using descriptive statistics, and multiple linear regression was used. To analyze the quantitative data collected for the study, descriptive statistical tools such as percentages and frequencies were used. Counts and percentages were found appropriate, given that the baseline data were collected using a dichotomous response scale with “Yes”/“No” questions. This required a direct summarization of the outcome. The results were summarized in tables and charts for description, analysis, and interpretation.

Multiple linear regression was also used to examine the effects of GBV on psychosocial life experiences, and analysis of variance was used to determine if there is a statistically significant difference between the mean response values of psychosocial challenges and coping strategies.

Finally, to measure the indirect effects of an independent variable, GBV, on survivors’ coping mechanisms through mediators called psychosocial life experiences, mediation analysis was used.

3. Results

3.1. Response Rate

During the data collection phase of the study, 357 questionnaires were distributed, and at the end of the data collection process, 357 questionnaires were successfully returned, with a 100% response rate. This will enhance the reliability of the data, thereby minimizing the non-response or low-response concerns and maximizing the overall validity of the findings of the study.

3.2. Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents

Demographic data results in Table S1 featured an intense picture of long-term displacement and socioeconomic vulnerability. The majority of respondents, or one-third, are young adults, aged 22–25.

Most respondents are widowed (45.7%), which implies significant vulnerability to loss and trauma. In education, only 3.1% of respondents have attained post-secondary education, and 65.2% have no formal schooling or basic literacy only.

With respect to the duration of living in the Kebribeyah Camp, the majority of the refugee women (40.1%) have lived there for 12 to 15 years, followed by 38.1% of them who reported living in the camp for 16 to 19 years. In addition, 19% and 2.5% of the women have lived in the camp for 20–23 years and more than 23 years, respectively. This indicates chronic displacement.

With regard to their role in the family, the majority of the women in the refugee camp (28%) were family members or children, followed by wives (26.3%), single women (25.5%), and single-parent family heads (20.2%). Lastly, concerning livelihood activities (what the respondents do for a living), the majority of refugee women living in the camp (74.2%) are engaged in labor work, overwhelmingly informal, and service-related activities; only 5% are formally employed. According to ecological theory, considering GBV as the result of a combination of factors, multi-layered interventions at the individual, relational, community, and societal levels are vital (Heise 1998; World Health Organization 2002).

Similarly, the findings underscore the complex vulnerabilities faced by long-term refugee populations, particularly in relation to gender-based violence. Patterns of low educational attainment, economic marginalization, and psychosocial distress point to entrenched structural barriers.

The prevalence of widowed and single women, coupled with limited livelihood options, reflects a context in which trauma is both sustained and compounded. These realities affirm the relevance of trauma-informed GBV interventions and highlight the embedded need for literacy development, psychosocial support, life skills training, and economic empowerment as integral components of any sustainable response. Favoring the finding, intersectionality theory emphasizes how experiences of violence and exclusion are exacerbated by intersecting identities, such as gender, race, and immigration status, particularly for refugee women (Crenshaw 1991; Sokoloff and Dupont 2005).

3.3. Patterns of Gender-Based Violence Among Women Refugees in Kebribeyah Refugee Camp

The data in Table S2, illustrate that the prevalence of all forms of GBV by men among adult women refugees in the Kebribeyah Refugee Camp was 10.98%.

Similarly, the average prevalence of reported GBV experiences across five forms of GBV, psychological, physical, sexual, neglect and deprivation, and other types of GBV, among refugee women at the Kebribeyah Refugee Camp was demonstrated. Psychological violence, which includes acts that promote sexual coercion, stands as the most prevalent category (16.06%), followed by physical violence (10.95%). The data reflect the relative frequency of each GBV category and provide insight into the dominant GBV patterns reported in the study. Per percentage reflects the proportion of the respondents who have experienced at least one GBV act within each category. Moreover, the data reflect the relative frequency of each form and provide insight into the dominant GBV patterns reported in the study. Taken together, psychological, physical, and sexual GBV are the most significant and common forms of GBV, thus calling for urgent and continued interventions.

With regards to specific GBV acts, the most prevalent form of GBV reported among women in the Kebribeyah Refugee Camp was verbal threats (sexual violence prompting verbal threats) (33%), followed by being slapped (16%), threatened with a weapon of any kind (8.7%), coerced to give or receive sex (7.6%), coerced to engage with sex for basic need benefits (7%); 6.2% were forced to see somebody who is being physically assaulted, experienced physical disfigurement (scar) of the body (5.9%), and subjected to unwanted kissing (5.6%), in descending incidence.

To sum up, from psychological GBV, verbal threats (33.3%), threats with a weapon of any kind (8.7%), and being forced to watch someone being physically assaulted (6.2%) are the most common significant acts of GBV. Physical violence, like slapping and or hitting (16%) and physical disfigurement (scar) of the body (5.9%), was reported as the next major form of GBV among women refugees in the Kebribeyah Refugee Camp. Sexual violence, such as being coerced to give or receive sex (7.6%), being coerced to engage in sex for basic need benefits (7%), and sexual harassment, including touching on sexual parts (3.6%), was also reported as a significantly prevalent form of GBV against Kebribeyah’s women refugees. Although 3.6% may seem small in percentage, the social and ethical significance of the response to sexual harassment among respondents is significant. Due to the serious nature of the problem and the possibility of underreporting due to stigma or fear, this proportion needs to be considered in policy and psychosocial intervention design.

3.4. Psychosocial Effects of GBV and Its Indirect Effects on Coping Mechanisms Among Women Refugees

The results of the mediation analysis in Table 2, examine the pathways between the independent variable gender-based violence (Praccod) and coping strategies (Copstra) through proposed mediators among refugee women in the Somali Kebribeyah Camp, Ethiopia. The analysis includes three mediators: psychological challenges (Psychl), social challenges (Socchl), and psychological challenges related to phobia (Psypho), with a sample size of 357 participants. Hayes PROCESS macro (Model 4) with 5000 bootstraps was used for the analysis, to ensure robust estimation of the indirect effect.

Table 2. Mediation results for GBV (x) with coping strategy (y) through psychosocial sub-divisions (M1–M5).

Mediator (Mi)	Path a: B(SE), t, p, 95% CI	Path b: B(SE), t, p, 95% CI	Indirect Effect (a:b)	Boot SE	95% Boot CI	% Mediated (ab/c × 100)	Model Summary: F, p, R2
M1: Psychl	B = 2.07(0.06); t = 29.79; p = 0.00 [1.94, 2.21]	B = 0.53(0.15); t = 3.55; p = 0.00 [0.23, 0.82]	1.10	0.33	[0.36, 1.66]	20%	F = 887; p = 0.00; R2 = 0.71
M2 = Socchl	B = 4.62(0.32); t = 14.12; p = 0.00 [3.98, 5.26]	B = 0.36 (0.02); t = 15.55; p = 0.00 [0.31, 0.41]	1.68	0.19	[1.33, 2.11]	30.8%	F = 199; p = 0.00; R2 = 0.35
M3: Psyphob	B = 2.36 (0.10); t = 22.74; p = 0.00 [2.16, 2.57]	B = −0.27(0.09); t = −2.79; p = 0.005 [−0.47, −0.08]	−0.65	0.23	[−1.15, 0.24]	11%	F = 519; p = 0.00; R2 = 0.59
Total indirect (sum of a.b)			2.14	0.41	[1.25, 2.87]	39.2%
Direct effect c′(X-Y controlling all Mi)	B = 3.09 (0.31); t = 9.89; p = 0.00 [2.47, 3.70]					56.6%	F = 416; p = 0.00; R2 = 0.82
Total effect c(X-Y) = (c′ + ab)	B = 5.23 (0.18); t = 28.60; p = 0.00 [4.87, 5.59]					100%

Note: B = unstandardized coefficient; SE = standardized error; CI = confidence interval. Path a = X with Mi (Praccod with Psychl, Socchl, and psyPhob). Path b = Mi with Y (controlling X) (Psychl, Socchl, and psyPhob with Copstra). Indirect = a.b (bootstrap inference).

3.4.1. The Effect of GBV (Praccod) on Survivors’ Psychosocial Well-Being

• The effect of GBV (Praccod) on psychological challenges

Regarding the GBV (Praccod) predictor and psychological challenges (Psychl) outcome, the result shows positive changes and the model is statistically significant by a beta score of 2.07(SE = 0.06, t = 29.79, p < 0.05). The substantial influence of psychological well-being on (Psychl) is explained by a score of R² = 0.71, which also verified that with exposure to GBV (Praccod) 71% of the variance in psychological challenges (Psychl) is explained by GBV (Praccod).

• The effect of GBV (Praccod) on social challenges (Sccchl)

The model summary for the predictor GBV (Praccod) and social challenge (Scchl) outcome indicated the statistically significant regression with a beta coefficient of 4.62(SE = 0.32, t = 14.12; p < 0.05).

This demonstrates that the model is statistically significant, with a substantial positive change in GBV (Praccod) and change in social challenge (Scchl). Every one unit of change in GBV (Praccod) predicts 4.62 changes in social challenge (Scchl). The variance score of R² = 0.35 implies that 35% of the variance in social challenge (Scchl) is explained by GBV (Praccod).

• The effect of GBV on psychological phobia (Psyphob)

In the analysis of the GBV (Praccod) and psychological phobia (PsyPhob) association, the regression result suggests a positive and significantly predicted GBV (Praccod) influence on psychological Phobia (PsyPhob), by a beta coefficient of =2.36 (SE = 0.10, t = 22.74, p < 0.05). This suggests that, in controlling for other variables, every one unit increase in GBV (Praccod) leads to a 2.33 increase in psychological phobia (PsyPhob). The regression model uncovers the substantial determination of GBV (Praccod) exposure on psychological phobia (PsyPhob) (R² = 59), implying that 59% variance in psychological phobia (PsyPhob) is explained by GBV (Praccod). This result suggests that more than half of the variability in psychological phobia is due to changes in GBV.

3.4.2. Effects of GBV (Praccod) on Coping Strategy

Vulnerability to GBV (Praccod) predictably increased psychosocial challenges, including all dimensions of psychological challenges. This challenge determines the coping mechanisms used among GBV survivors.

• Direct effects of GBV (Praccod) on coping strategy (Copstra) (X-Y)

The direct effect of GBV (Praccod) on coping strategy (Copstra), controlling for the mediators, is strong, positive, and statistically significant with a beta coefficient of =3.09 (SE = 0.31, t = 9.89, p < 0.05).

The effect scores of the beta coefficient 3.09 are predictably substantial and show that a one unit increase in GBV raises a 3.09 increase in coping mechanisms preferences among GBV survivors. Variance score implies that R² = 0.82; this illustrates that, controlling for the mediators, the 82% variance in coping strategy (Copstra) is explained by GBV (Praccod).

The direct effect of GBV on coping mechanisms remains significant, suggesting partial mediation, and also affects coping mechanisms independently of psychosocial distress.

• Mediator’s effect on coping strategy (Copstra) (M-Y)

In the analysis of the three mediators’ effects on coping strategy (Copstra), for social challenges (Socchl) with coping strategy (Copstra), the data demonstrated a beta coefficient of 0.36 (SE = 0.02, t = 15.55, p = < 0.05), suggesting statistically significant, very strong positive increasing effects. A one unit increase in social challenges (Socchl) increases the coping strategy (Copstra) by 0.36 score.

The effects of psychological challenges (Psychl) on coping strategy (Copstra) scored a beta coefficient of 0.53(SE = 0.15, t = 3.55, p < 0.05), which implies a positive and strong effect. The result is also statistically significant.

Regarding the relationship between psychological phobia (Psyphob) and coping strategy (Copstra), the regression result demonstrated a beta coefficient of −0.27(SE = 0.09, t = −2.79, p = 0.005), which implies statistically significant but negative decreases. This implies that the direction of the relationship between psychological phobia and coping strategy is negative, and when psychological phobia increases, the preference for coping strategy decrease. Variance R² 0.59, which implies that, though the direction of the relationship is negative, the 59% variance in coping strategy is explained by psychological phobia (Psyphob).

• Indirect effects of GBV (Praccod) on coping strategy (Copstra) through the three mediators

In regards to the indirect effects of GBV (Praccod) on coping strategy, three mediators were considered: psychological challenges (Psychl), social challenges (Socchl), and psychological phobia (psyphob). While the direct effect of GBV on coping strategy remains substantial, the significant indirect effect through mediators, psychological challenges (Psychl), social challenges (Socchl), and psychological phobia (psyphob) on outcome needs consideration. This is because if the indirect effect is also significant, the mediator’s effects also seek emphasis in intervention design.

This study examined the indirect effects of GBV (Praccod) (X) on coping strategies (Copstra) (Y) through three mediators: psychological challenges (Psychl) M1, social challenges (Socchl) M2, and psychological phobia (psyphob) M3. Hayes PROCESS macro (Model 4) with 5000 bootstraps mediated analysis was used for the analysis to ensure the robust estimation of the indirect effect. The total effect (C) of GBV (Praccod) on coping strategies (Copstra) is significant B =5.23(SE = 0.18, t = 28.69, p < 0.05), implying a strong overall association.

The indirect effect of X on Y (GBV (Praccod) on coping strategies (Copstra)) through procedural fairness was significant (ab = 2.14, 95% boot CI = [1.25, 2.87], illustrating a robust mediation pathway. Thus, GBV (Praccod) (X) influences the coping strategy (Copstra) (Y) indirectly through mediators, with an estimated effect size of 2.14; the bootstrapped 95% CI does not include zero (p < 0.05), implying that the indirect effect is statistically significant. A one unit increase in GBV increases coping strategy by 2.14 points.

The mediator of psychological challenge (Psychl) mediated the relationship (ab = 1.10, 95% CI = [36, 1.66]), demonstrating the influence of psychological challenge in GBV survivors’ preference of coping strategies. Likewise, social challenges (Socchl) significantly played a role in indirectly affecting (ab = 1.68, 95% CI = [1.33, 2.11]). The third mediator, psychological phobia (Psyphob), predicts a significant negative indirect effect (ab = 0.65, 95% CI = [−1.15, 0.24]).

Sum-up of the three mediators predicted for a significant score of the total indirect effect of (ab = 2.1, 95% CI [1.25, 2.87]), and direct effect (c’) beta coefficient of =3.09 (SE = 0.31, t = 9.89, p = < 0.05). The finding deduced the multidimensional pathways through which GBV (Praccod) influence coping strategy among GBV survivors, and suggests the combination of addressing GBV, psychological challenges, social challenges and psychological phobia in interventions of GBV and its psychosocial effects.

The analysis reveals that while experiences of gender-based violence (Praccod) have a strongly significant direct effect on coping strategies (Copstra), they also significantly influence coping strategies through various psychosocial challenges. Specifically, psychological challenges (Psychl), social challenges (Socchl), and psychological phobias (psyphob) contribute to the development of coping strategies among refugee women.

The total indirect effect underscores the critical role that these mediators play in understanding how gender-based violence experiences shape coping mechanisms in this population. This underscores the importance of considering social and psychological challenges in understanding how experiences of gender-based violence impact coping mechanisms among refugee women in the Somali Kebribeyah Camp, Ethiopia.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

According to IASC (2015), humanitarian emergencies might also boost the threat of many GBV styles because the situation incapacitates women due to their connection with their family as well as the breakdown of social network structures. Likewise, as mentioned by UNHCR (2024a), GBV is the most significant issue in almost all refugee camps in the world. Even though there are few studies that have directly focused on GBV prevalence in refugee camps relative to the emergency period, those which do exist highlight this concern.

Consistent with these findings, this study identified the considerable prevalence of GBV against women refugees in the Kebribeyah Camp, and the problem requires due consideration and targeted intervention. The study reveals that psychological violence with verbal threats (33.3%) and threats with a weapon of any kind (8.7%) constitute the leading GBV acts in the Kebribeyah Refugee Camp. This form of GBV not only induces emotional fear in GBV survivors but also challenges their sense of safety and autonomy. Being forced to witness physical assault (6.2%) is a traumatic act that is often overlooked in GBV discussions but has a big impact on the sufferer experiencing the physical violence.

Among women refugees in the Kebribeyah camp, physical violence such as slapping and/or hitting (16%) and physical deformity (scar) of the body (5.9%) was identified as the next most prevalent type of GBV. As these figures reveal, there is a systematic pattern of physical GBV in humanitarian contexts among Kebribeyah’s women refugees. In addition to endangering physical health, physical GBV often threatens long-term mental welfare.

Even though coercion to give or receive sex (7.6%), sex for basic needs (7%), and sexual harassment (3.6%) are reported at lower rates, sexual assault can carry substantial ethical and psychosocial weight. For instance, underreporting sexual violence due to stigma, fear of retaliation, or mistrust of support systems may be the cause of the relatively low reporting of sexual harassment. According to the ACAPS (2024) report, cultural taboos and a lack of survivor-centered resources often drive survivors to remain silent.

This violence is not random, but rather it arises from sociocultural power dynamics and reflects the realities of women refugees’ daily lives. This result allows us to grasp crucial experiences beyond the frequency and prevalence of GBV.

The study has also identified that multiple forms of gender-based violence occurred interconnectedly. Psychological, physical, and sexual GBV can occur simultaneously or sequentially, resulting in a cycle of abuse. The study demonstrates that physical GBV frequently emphasizes patterns of slapping or hitting the victim at the onset of sexual abuse.

As identified by the study, psychological GBV poses a serious threat to women refugees. This is because it is a form of abuse in itself, and it can frequently serve as a precursor of other types of GBV, such as physical and sexual violence.

The Advocates for Human Rights (2009) assessment deduced that women refugees faced different negative consequences of GBV such as loss of control, hopelessness, anger, suicide, and behavior disorders, which, if undiagnosed and untreated, will leave deep emotional scars on many surviving females. Consistent with this finding, the study identified how these vulnerabilities enhance women refugees’ probability of experiencing psychological trauma and emotional challenges. This is because psychological abuse, especially the fear of sexual assault, can have long-term impacts on survivors’ mental health and well-being, such as PTSD, sadness, and anxiety. The study reveals that women refugees can deal with the stress of probable violence from abusive men.

Regarding the effects of GBV (Praccod) on psychological well-being (Psychl), regression results illustrated the following: B = 2.07, SE = 0.06, t = 29.79, p = < 0.05, and R² of 0.71. This suggests that GBV significantly and positively predicts psychological difficulties. In particular, there is a 2.07 unit increase in psychological distress for every unit increase in GBV exposure. A strong and accurate estimate is shown by the high t-value and low standard error, and the R² value of 71% shows that GBV explains a significant amount of the variation in psychological outcomes.

In line with this finding, Lausi et al. (2024) noted that GBV survivors frequently suffer from severe deficits in interpersonal trust, emotional regulation, and cognitive functioning. Likewise, Yalcinoz-Ucan et al. (2022) discovered that GBV victims’ severe trauma and identity disruption require psychological therapies. Wanjiru (2021) also emphasized the long-term effects of GBV, such as suicidal thoughts, anxiety, sadness, and PTSD, especially in situations with little social support.

The strength of the statistical association supports the theoretical idea that GBV is not only physical or social difficulties, but also a deeply psychological issue. GBV exposure is a significant contributor to psychological issues in affected groups, according to the model’s explanatory strength (R² = 0.71), underscoring the need for trauma-informed mental health care. The long-term mental impact of psychological GBV emphasizes the need for a trauma-informed approach in refugee assistance for women. Trauma-based care focuses on creating a secure and supportive environment for healing and recovery while acknowledging the impact of trauma on people’s lives.

Another significant and fairly substantial effect of GBV (Praccod) on survivors’ social challenges (Socchl) is scored by the regression result (β = 4.62, SE = 0.32, t = 14.12, p < 0.05, R² = 0.36). This indicates that 36% of the variation in problems like stigma, loneliness, and strained relationships is caused by GBV.

According to UN Women (2023a), GBV survivors frequently experience social capital loss, economic isolation, and rejection from their communities. GBV survivor women are often afraid of additional violence; thus, they withdraw from normal social activities like attending school, engaging in social life, going to the market, and participating in politics. They may also have difficulty finding a partner, face unwanted pregnancy, and encounter stigmatization and economic challenges (Rashid 2011). These results highlight the necessity of multi-sectoral intervention, including community education, psychosocial support, and legal protection to address both the causes and effects of GBV among women refugee survivors.

With respect to GBV (Praccod) and phobia (Psyphob), according to the regression result (β = 2.36, SE = 0.10, t = 22.74, p < 0.05), GBV has a strong and significant impact on phobia. Also, R² = (0.59) implies 59% that the variation in phobic symptoms, including panic, avoidance, and terror, may be explained by GBV. Due to trauma exposure, GBV survivors frequently have anxiety and phobia-like symptoms (Friedberg et al. 2023). Therefore, trauma-informed mental health therapy is crucial so as to address GBV survivors’ fear-based disorders and encourage healing.

GBV (Praccod) has a considerable and statistically significant direct impact on coping strategy (Copstra), (β = 3.09, SE = 0.31, t = 9.89, p < 0.05, R² = 0.82). GBV accounts for 82% of the variation in how people react to trauma, suggesting that survivors’ coping mechanisms are greatly influenced by their violent experiences. According to Hossain et al. (2021), depending on the intensity and circumstances of the abuse, GBV survivors frequently use a combination of avoidant, emotional, and problem-focused coping strategies. The high R² value indicates that interventions must be customized to the lived experiences of survivors, encouraging adaptive coping through outreach that is sensitive to cultural differences, community support, and trauma-informed care.

Survivors’ coping mechanisms are greatly impacted by gender-based violence (GBV), with social and psychological difficulties as significant mediators. The study shows that GBV has a significant indirect effect (ab = 2.14) and a substantial total effect on coping (B = 5.23, p < 0.05), indicating that both internal and external stressors influence survivors’ coping mechanisms. This relationship is considerably mediated by psychological challenges (ab = 1.10) and social challenges (ab = 1.68), emphasizing the influence of social demands and emotional suffering on coping preferences. Psychological phobia, on the other hand, had a negative but statistically insignificant effect (ab = −0.65), suggesting that it may impede adaptive coping but is not well-supported.

Dutton and Goodman (2005), in their ecological model of coping among women who have experienced physical abuse, highlight how social and psychological difficulties shape coping strategies, including the impact of resilience and community support. These results are consistent with the results of the present research, showing that GBV survivors frequently employ problem-focused coping mechanisms to deal with trauma, particularly when assisted by social networks and psychological treatments. Resilience and healing can be improved by addressing these mediators with focused mental health and community assistance.

One unexpected finding is the negative indirect effect of psychological phobia (Psyphob) on coping strategy (ab = −0.65, 95% CI = [−1.15, 0.24]). This finding implies that phobic reactions may actually impede adaptive coping, despite the fact that psychological distress often increases coping strategies. Extreme fear or avoidance may cause survivors to stop using any coping mechanism, which could have maladaptive consequences. This highlights the complexity of fear-based reactions in trauma recovery and runs counter to certain research that associates high psychological challenges with enhanced coping efforts (Dutton and Goodman 2005).

In conclusion, this study suggests strong findings that survivors’ coping mechanisms are significantly impacted by gender-based violence (GBV), both directly and through important psychological and social mediators. The significant overall impact of GBV on coping (B = 5.23) emphasizes how urgent it is to address trauma-related reactions. Social and psychological difficulties have become significant mediators, influencing how survivors adjust and pursue resilience. In addition to causing immediate trauma, GBV also causes long-lasting psychological and social problems that call for all-encompassing, trauma-informed, and community-based solutions.

Both social empowerment and mental health support should be given the highest priority in future interventions to promote survivors’ holistic coping. Owing to the multifaceted nature and consequences of GBV, a more comprehensive knowledge of GBV and the creation of multi-level interventions that address the underlying causes and foster resilience are made possible by the integration of both ecological and intersectionality paradigms (Heise 1998; World Health Organization 2002; Abrams et al. 2020).

Notably, the unanticipated detrimental impact of psychological phobia raises the possibility that fear-based reactions could impede efficient coping, an issue which calls for further investigation. The study’s reliance on quantitative data provides strong statistical insights, but it also emphasizes the need for future research to use more nuanced, longitudinal, and mixed-method techniques. These results not only contribute to theoretical knowledge but also guide focused interventions that give GBV survivors’ mental health and social support networks the highest priority.

5. Limitation of the Study

GBV prevalence and survivors’ psychological and social states are briefly captured by the study, which seems to rely on cross-sectional analysis. The absence of longitudinal data, which limits the chance to evaluate how coping techniques change over time, is a significant limitation of the study.

Another limitation is that the study relied solely on a quantitative methodology because it is useful for identifying statistical connections and mediation effects. However, the study would have benefited from qualitative data triangulation to deepen contextual awareness and the understanding of the complex personal experiences, cultural interpretations, and subjective meanings behind survivors’ coping mechanisms.

6. Suggestions for Further Research

Even though statistical research finds important relationships, it is not enough to understand survivors’ real experiences, feelings, and cultural contexts. Incorporating qualitative methods, like focus groups or interviews, would improve outcomes and offer a more thorough comprehension of how GBV survivors develop coping strategies. Hence, future research should employ mixed-method approaches to overcome the limitations of relying just on quantitative data.

In order to better understand the temporal dynamics and causal linkages between GBV, mediating psychological and social factors, and coping mechanisms, future research should consider employing a longitudinal approach, given the limitations found in this study.