Beyond Borders: Unpacking the Key Cultural Factors Shaping Adaptation and Belonging Abroad

Abstract

This paper presents a thematic literature review of 35 studies to examine key developmental factors influencing expatriate adaptation, including language, identity integration, cultural intelligence, and spousal/family relations, impacting expatriate adaptation and acclimation to the host country. For the purposes of this review, the term “expatriate” refers to individuals who temporarily relocate abroad for education or professional assignments (self-initiated and assigned), often accompanied by spouses or family members. “Adaptation” is defined as the multidimensional process of adjustment to new academic, workplace, and social environments, encompassing both practical adjustment (e.g., communication, work/study tasks) and psychological well-being. This review uses two bibliometric reviews to set the foundation for exploring the impacts of language, identity integration, cultural intelligence, and family, highlighting that interactions with locals foster language development, identity integration, and cultural intelligence, which collectively enhances expatriates’ perceived sense of comfort and belonging. Spousal and family dynamics appear to be particularly influential, with the potential to either support or hinder successful adaptation. Although prior literature often focuses on these factors in isolation, this paper synthesizes them to provide a more holistic understanding of expatriate acclimation. It emphasizes the need for future research to explore the interrelated nature of these variables and their combined impact on expatriate well-being.

Business and education are becoming increasingly international with a predicted trend of growing expatriation (Liu and Lee 2008). Expatriation offers unique opportunities for professional growth, cultural learning, and global collaboration. Yet, these opportunities also come with adaptation challenges that require both individual and organizational support. There are high rates of expatriate failure which cost companies money and time while causing the individual emotional and physical stress (Swaak 1995). Often expatriate success is linked to good organizational management practices in terms of guiding the expatriate through the expatriate cycle (i.e., selection, preparation) and tailoring their guidance to the individual (Dwyer 2018; Dabic et al. 2015). However, many organizations find themselves in urgent situations to fill high-impact positions, causing them to select the best “available” candidate for the job rather than most qualified or eager (Swaak 1995; Dwyer 2018). Associated with the lack of preparation is failure as expatriates are not able to develop a sense of belonging upon arrival. A sense of belongingness creates intimacy with the host country’s populations and cultures which leads to successful adaptation. This process relies on factors such as language, identity integration, cultural intelligence, and spousal/family relations. There is a gap in the literature as these factors are fragmented (Dabic et al. 2015)—in both internal and external dimensions—and are not looked at holistically.

Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to integrate previously fragmented research into a cohesive framework that captures how interpersonal, cultural, and familial dynamics jointly shape expatriate adaptation and well-being. The main contribution of this work is to bridge connections and identify paths for further studies.

1. Conceptual Frameworks

Two bibliometric reviews were taken into consideration to determine the factors of examination. Dabic et al. (2015) conducted a bibliometric analysis on literature published on expatriate adaptation, highlighting a cluster of cultural factors as the focal point of many of the papers they extracted. This was cross-checked with a comparatively recent bibliometric review by Andersen (2021). Anderon’s results remained consistent with that of Dabic, Gonzalez-Loureiro, and Harvey; however, Andersen highlighted specific keywords rooting in cultural adjustment. These include cultural intelligence and language. Furthermore, Andersen shows the overlap between cross-cultural adjustment and career keywords, which indicated family mentoring and identity as commonly associated with expatriation. Across both reviews, it was also pointed out that sociological and psychological approaches in expatriate research were marginal and that non-exclusively business-related issues should be further explored. In this literature review we will look at expatriates in business and education; however, we will look at how social and psychological well-being and adaptation is impacted by non-business-oriented factors. With that, the factors of focus are identity, language, cultural intelligence, and family in relation to each other and a development of a sense of belonging; both of which impact expatriation and adaptation.

A sense of belongingness is a key part in expatriate success abroad as belongingness fosters human motivation and purpose (Baumeister and Leary 1995); it is a fundamental need that acts as a driving force for behavior (Allen et al. 2021). The formation of a sense of belonging is a complex process often psychologically layered pertaining to the associations with groups or relationships with objects, animals, nature, ideologies, and spirituality, leading to interpersonal relationships (Hagerty et al. 1992). Essentially, it is linked to deep connections to the environment (Allen et al. 2021); leading to positive cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes and overall well-being (Baumeister and Leary 1995).

The positive sense of belonging includes both diversity and unity as human culture must consist of uniformity existing in the form of universally set negative imperatives which allow for a diverse sociocultural system (Nelson 1978). In this context, a hybrid culture refers to the shared cultural space that emerges when expatriates and host-country members blend their norms, communication styles, problem-solving approaches, and task coordination into a mutually workable system. Rather than replacing one culture with another, hybrid culture integrates aspects of both to create a new, dynamic set of practices that facilitate collaboration and everyday interaction (Fleischmann et al. 2020). Such a hybrid cultural environment is central to successful adaptation, because it allows expatriates to experience both familiarity and inclusion while participating in the host setting. “Adaptation” is defined as the multidimensional process of adjustment to new academic, workplace, and social environments, encompassing both practical adjustment (e.g., communication, work/study tasks) and psychological well-being (Han et al. 2022). Within this process, communication patterns—particularly language—play an especially influential role. Cognitive and emotional responses to language barriers shape perceptions of trustworthiness and trust formation, which in turn affect relationships, belongingness, and overall adjustment (Fleischmann et al. 2020). For example, as studied by Fleischmann, expatriates in hybrid teams with higher self-perceived language proficiency tend to be more confident and secure; while those with lower perceived language proficiency tend to experience more anxiety and fear of judgement, impacting overall adaptation as self-concept influences involvement in the workplace. As previously mentioned, an “expatriate” is an individual who temporarily relocates abroad for education or professional assignments (Biemann and Andresen 2010). As established in internationalization models, language—linguistic characteristics and norms of a set group of people or country (Vulchanov 2020)—play a key role in the learning and exchange of information (Fleischmann et al. 2020). It has been described as “a glue between dimensions of global work” (Vulchanov 2020, p. 12). This exchange of information is vital for developing a sense of belonging and overall success with international collaboration. Having similar communication patterns through shared language is the most influential way to achieve meaningful relationships to the host country. As mentioned previously, language barriers affect perceived trustworthiness which may stand in the way of forming these relationships. Therefore, language impacts the proper interactions between expatriates and locals, which affects the development of a new cultural perspective. Additionally, the development of cultural knowledge relies on a common language and social knowledge. The combination of preexisting cultural knowledge and newly developed cultural intelligence can be seen to contribute to a sense of belongingness.

Furthermore, identity is multifaceted and has various possible combinations of attitudes towards the home country, host country, or the global community (Pekerti et al. 2017). These attitudes assist in how expatriates mold their identity to include the experience of being abroad. The change in identity caused by this adaptation greatly influences an individual’s sense of belonging. When there is a change in social circles and decreased strength in ties and social bonds to the home country, there is instability of cultural identity (Mao and Shen 2015). Because of this, the individual tends to seek out new relationships in the host country for which work and nonwork exist as useful outlets. Due to social learning theory (Bandura 1977), these ties and close interactions let the individual develop cultural knowledge and an avenue for emotional support that ties them with the country, therefore changing their behavior and perception of the host country (Mao and Shen 2015; Salamin 2021). Drawing on Van der Zee and Van Oudenhoven’s (2022) approach to acculturation, we define this change in identity as identity integration—connecting one’s perspective with another based on interactions and other lived experiences.

On that note, relationships can be seen to affect cultural intelligence—an individual’s ability to function and manage effectively in a culturally diverse or different setting than what the expatriate is used to (Ang et al. 2007). The positive correlation between cross-cultural communications and cultural intelligence allows for adaptation along three variables of cultural intelligence: cognition, motivation, and behavior (Mao and Shen 2015). Cognition emphasizes the importance of heterogeneous networks—home and host country connections—to build expatriates’ cultural identity and knowledge base. Motivation emphasizes the meaningful engagement with diverse groups with the desire of being accepted into the local society. Behavior emphasizes the importance of how they engage in such environments. Taking the previous idea into consideration alongside Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory, learning from experience proves to be one of the most effective styles of learning; therefore, engagement with the culture of the host country with the help of locals can be an effective way of gaining cultural intelligence, fostering expatriate acclimation, and getting accepted into society. This person-environment relationship also impacts feelings and behaviors and essentially fuels an internal and external assessment by and on the expatriate (Haslberger et al. 2013). Oftentimes, this resulting development of cultural intelligence and a new cultural perspective is triggered by the stress, anxiety, and uncertainty associated with crossing borders and cultures. With the theory of homophily, it is evident that people tend to build relationships with people who are like them. However, this becomes hard with a new country/culture therefore individuals engage in reflexive activities (Bayraktar 2019). This type of engagement in the local environment considering the variables of cognition, motivation, and behavior is a constant mediation between the social environment and expatriate with the shifting in cultural contexts and cues (Van der Zee and Van Oudenhoven 2022). The development of cultural intelligence in this way to the respective host country builds a tolerance to living with cultural differences which helps individuals gain coping mechanisms (Bayraktar 2019). Depending on the expatriates’ network density and centrality, this ends up changing their identities to resemble the new national cultures which influence their cultural identity and integration (Mao and Shen 2015).

The strength of ties with the home country is especially important and influential in the extremity of these triggering feelings and identity integration—the incorporation of cultural identity from the home country with the cultural identity developed with experiences abroad (Mao and Shen 2015). Instrumental ties, such as physical and informational/financial sources, as well as expressive ties like emotional resources can differ in how much influence they have in the acclimation of the individual to the host country (Mao and Shen 2015). A strong tie to the home country accommodates frequent interactions, self-disclosure, and mutual effort. The more unstable this tie is to the home country, the more likely the individual is going to experience these triggering feelings and actively find meaningful relationships in the host country allowing for more identity integration and cultural intelligence development.

Additionally, family dynamics represents a key factor influencing expatriate adaptation and acclimation. While the conceptualization of “family” remains inconsistently defined across the literature, its role as a source of emotional, logistical, and psychological support is well established (Haour-Knipe 2001). The presence or absence of family support systems have been shown to directly impact expatriates’ ability to manage stressors associated with international relocation. For instance, female expatriates—whether single and childless or married with children—frequently reported work-life balance challenges which can be viewed as key obstacles to successful adaptation. Nonetheless, family influences often emerge as a central determinant in their decision to accept international assignments and in their ongoing adjustment process (Salamin 2021; Shah et al. 2019). These findings suggest that expatriation outcomes are closely linked not only to individual factors—language, identity integration, cultural intelligence—but also to the broader social and familial contexts surrounding the expatriate.

Although previous studies have addressed these factors, there are gaps in their holistic applicability. We aim to combine the elements of language, identity integration, cultural intelligence and family status to explore how they interrelate, impact expatriate adaptability, literature and research trends, and avenues for future research.

2. Methods

A conceptual review of scientific literature was conducted to identify, select, and determine its relevance to the construct of belonging abroad to create an integrative framework incorporating different (current) research findings from the past decade while also identifying gaps in the literature and seeing the overall trends of expatriate literature output.

A public, well-known database, Claremont Colleges Library (ProQuest, EBSCOhost, Project MUSE, Web of Science, etc.), was used to identify the initial set of articles using the term “expatriation” for a keyword search. This identified 58,700 articles associated with the topic of interest and 46,500 after the duplicates were removed. The articles were then categorized by decade, as shown in Figure 1, to determine which time period of expatriate literature to focus on. Most of the articles were published in the last decade, leading us to focus on articles from the last 10 years—2014–present—for the review. To narrow down the search base, certain parameters were set of books, book chapters, and articles only published in the last 10 years in English which narrowed the search to 14,700 sources. A key thing to highlight here is that this level of the search did not include grey literature, thesis, or dissertations. Another keyword search was performed with the words “work” and “education” leading to any source nonwork or non-education related being excluded resulting in 426 relevant articles. An additional keyword search was added on to the previous with the terms “identity,” “cultural learning,” “language,” and “family,” without allowing for related terms, resulting in the inclusion of 317 studies. The abstracts of all 317 studies were briefly reviewed and if they did not directly examine data in relation to expatriation adjustment, adaptation, or perceived belongingness, they were excluded. A final count of 35 sources was used which were categorized into theoretical (6) and empirical (29) as seen in Figure 2 inclusion-exclusion PRISMA flowchart. A broad initial keyword search with the term “expatriation” was performed to (1) give us an idea of how the amount of expatriate literature published has evolved to develop better search parameters and (2) allow us to find articles that relate to belonging and adaptation which would have been excluded if a keyword search was performed.

Following the text screening and inclusion, all the studies were coded with the shared mental model approach. The first five studies were coded by two authors separately. When we reconvened, we compared the different ways each of us coded the texts and developed the factors that needed to be analyzed/coded for: central theme of the article or book chapter, sample type (i.e., demographic, job) and size, study design, hypothesized relations, outcomes, and limitations. From these criteria, the following 35 articles were coded with meetings every two weeks to go over the coding.

Table 1. Articles Retained and Coded.

Citation	Title	Journal	Methodology	Samples	Key Findings
Fleischmann et al. (2020)	The Impact of Perceived Language Proficiency on Hybrid Culture	International Journal of Business Communication	Online Survey + Semi-Structured Interviews	103 Corporate Individuals (79 Indian, 22 German, 1 Kenyan, 1 Japanese)	Language proficiency in team language leads to positive team culture.
Bayraktar (2019)	A Diary Study of Expatriate Adjustment: Collaborative mechanisms of social support	International Journal of Cross Cultural Management	Diary-Study	Single (spousal status) expatriates sent on temporary international assignments—42 individuals (26 men & 16 women)	Different networks provide different social support; therefore, expatriates with diverse social networks in their host and home country have access to more support facilitating adjustment.
Pazil et al. (2023)	International Students’ Experiences of Living Temporarily Abroad: Sense of Belonging Toward Community Well-Being	Asian Social Work and Policy Review	Qualitative—In-Depth Case Interviews and Thematic Analysis	14 (7 male & 7 female) international postgraduate students (Bangladesh, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Pakistan, Jordan, Yemen, Algeria, Egypt)	Conational friends are avenues for social support and enhance belongingness. Face-to-face interactions prove to be more beneficial to facilitate connections than social media.
Gong et al. (2021)	Cultural Adaptation Challenges and Strategies During Study Abroad: New Zealand Student in China	Language, Culture, and Curriculum	Qualitative Analysis of Reflective Journals and Interviews (86 entries total) + Group Interviews	15 New Zealand Student	Students faced language-based lifestyle, and academic challenges which they countered with cognitive, affective, and skill development in facilitating communication with the local people suggesting revisions to traditional pedagogical approaches.
Mohd Yusuf et al. (2021)	Using Social Network Tools to Facilitate Cultural Adjustment of Self-Initiated Malaysian Female Expatriate Nurses in Saudi Arabia	Journal of Infection and Public Health	Qualitative Study with Semi-Structured Interviews	16 Malaysian Female Nurses Working in Saudi Arabia	Social network tools help reduce loneliness, culture shock, and emotional stress, thereby supporting adjustment to life and work
Hofhuis et al. (2019)	Social Network Sites (SNS) and Acculturation of International Sojourners in the Netherlands: The Mediating Role of Psychological Alienation and Online Social Support	International Journal of Intercultural Relations	Digital Survey with no compensation for participation	126 short-term sojourners (64 international students & 62 workers) with no Dutch nationality (36 different countries of nationality)	Cultural maintenance and host country participation are positively related to well-being. On the other hand, SNS to the home country is related to online social support but also contributes to psychological alienation.
Wilson and Dutt (2022)	Expatriate Adjustment in Hotels in Dubai, UAE	Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism	Online Survey with 5-point scale for strongly agree to strongly disagree	104 (47.12% male & 52.88% female between 25–34 years & 30 different nationalities) lower and middle-level managers (expatriates) working in luxury hotels in Dubai hospitality industry	Push factors are less important than expected while personal motivators are important for success. The social aspect was the least well-adjusted to.
Pachmayer and Andereck (2019)	Enlightened Travelers? Cultural Attitudes. Competencies & Study Abroad	Tourism Culture & Communication	Qualitative analysis through semi-structured interviews	30 participants (8 males & 22 females) and 70% had prior foreign travel experience	Changes in cultural attitudes led to less stigma while increases to cultural competence led to adaptability, confidence and openness.
Dabic et al. (2015)	Evolving Research on Expatriates: What is “Known” After our Decades (1970–2012)	The International Journal of Human Resource Management	Bibliometric	438 papers in 104 different journals by 233 authors	Research is currently centered around multinational US perspectives with converging empirical results on the expatriate cycle (selection, preparation, training & development repatriation). Research needs to be broadened in terms of geography and issues addressed (gaps in literature).
Linder (2019)	Expatriates’ Motivations for Going Abroad: The Role of Organisational Embeddedness for Career Satisfaction and Job Effort	Employee Relations	Online Survey & ANOVA PLS	98 Managers 165 expatriates—self-initiated (66) and assigned (99) w/125 men & 44 women from 11 different countries	Positive relationship between the degree of organisational embeddedness in institutions abroad, job performance, and career satisfaction. Perceptions of embeddedness depended on workers’ mindsets around career ambitions.
Shah et al. (2019)	Career Decisions of Married Indian IT Female Expatriates	Journal of Global Mobility: The Home of Expatriate Management Research	Semi-structured Interviews	24 married Indian IT women on international assignments post-marriage	Clarity, shared sense of purpose between spouses and extended family support network are major factors impacting married Indian IT females’ decision to take on international assignments.
Salamin (2021)	Specific Work-Life Issues of Single and Childless Female Expatriates: An Exploratory Study in the Swiss Context	Journal of Global Mobility: The Home of Expatriate Management Research	Semi-structured face-to-face interviews	20 single, childless expatriates	Work-nonwork enrichment enables personal development. There is a lack of appreciation for female expatriates’ nonwork time, resulting from strong investment in the work sphere and flexibility to go abroad contributing to a work-nonwork conflict. This, alongside Switzerland’s traditional family and gender roles, led to exclusion from social networks.
Zhang et al. (2018)	Managing Expatriates in China: A Language and Identity Perspective	Palgrave Macmillan	2-phase case study with semi-structured interviews	Nordic MNCs operating in China with local Chinese employees and Nordic expatriates	Locals perceived expatriates who were more skilled in the Chinese language or immersed in the language learning process as more approachable and respectful. On the other hand, those who relied on English were often excluded and were unable to form strong relationships/networks.
Mumtaz and Nadeem (2023)	Understanding the Development of a Common Social Identity Between Expatriates and Host Country Nationals	Personnel Review	Three-wave time-lag design—2 questionnaires + personal visits and emails	93 Chinese and 239 Pakistani host country nationals in 55 organizations varying in 17 sectors of work	Trust development and intercultural communication were positively associated with the development of a common social identity between expatriates and HCNs. Interaction adjustment had a negative impact on a common social identity.
Habti and Elo (2019)	Global Mobility of Highly Skilled People: Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Self-Initiated Expatriation	Springer International Publishing	Case study + Questionnaire of 17 MCQ (1-totally agree, 5-totally disagree) & 3 SAQs	236 individuals Group of randomly sampled line managers working in various fields.	SIEs were judged for how they act in the workplace (performance & cooperation) and feeling accepted was a challenge. Skills like flexibility, independent problem solving, and tolerance of difference were deemed significant indicators of functional social relationships in the work community.
Ipek and Paulus (2021)	The Influence of Personality on Individuals’ Expatriation Willingness in the Context of Safe and Dangerous Environments	Journal of Global Mobility: The Home of Expatriate Management research	Experimental vignette	278 participants (students and employees) 41.3% female 49.28% in a committed relationship 68.71% had prior international experience 60.79% were students 39.21% were employed for wages 85.32% worked full-time 14.58% worked part-time	Expatriate selection needs to take personality (openness to experience, conscientiousness, emotionality) into consideration for expatriation management & training needs.
Al Nahyan and Matherly (2017)	An Empirical Test of the Predictors of National-Expatriate Knowledge Transfer and the Development of Sustainable Human Capital	Strategies of Knowledge Transfer for Economic Diversification in the Arab States of the Gulf	100 Question Survey (Likert-Scale format)	496 Surveys 62% male & 38% female 52% Home Country Nationals 19% Arab and Asian 8% Western	Knowledge transfer between nationals and non-nationals is important for knowledge building for non-national individuals. This process is strongly associated with trust, transparency, process improvement, and incentives.
Wurtz (2022)	A Transactional Stress and Coping Perspective on Expatriation: New Insights on the Roles of Age, Gender, and Expatriate Type	Journal of Global Mobility: The Home of Expatriate Management Research	Questionnaire (demographics + COPE Inventory- subscales)	1269 expatriates from four MNCs with 448 survey responses	There are various methods of coping; however, there are significant differences between expatriate groups. Older vs. Younger: Older expatriates are more likely to use problem-focused coping strategies (active, coping, planning, restraint) and emotion-focused disengagement (substance use) Female vs. Male: Female expatriates are more likely to use acceptance, positive reinterpretation, and humor to cope. SIEs vs. AEs: SIEs are more likely to rely on emotional social support.
Fei (2023)	Chinese in Africa: Expatriations Regime and Lived Experience	Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies	Surveys to collect demographic & background data + Semi-structured interviews to note experiences and perceptions	66 Chinese expatriates working in Ethiopia	Expatriation serves state-led developmental goals, allows Chinese workers to explore career/life goals, and Chinese companies’ global ventures, but also introduces different forms of inclusion and exclusion to society.
Vihari et al. (2024)	Role of Intraorganizational Social Capital and Perceived Organizational Support on Expatriate Job Performance Empirical Evidence	Industrial and Commercial Training	Survey using a 5-point Likert scale + Hypothesis testing using SEM with a two-stage approach	268 expatriates in UAE	Intraorganizational social capital and perceived organizational support has a positive influence on expatriate job performance while Islamic work ethic mediates the relationship between all factors.
Engle et al. (2024)	Key Factors of Corporate Expatriates Cross-Cultural Adjustment	Central European Business Review	Questionnaire with 6-point Likert scale	62 Japanese expatriates (senior execs with families) in Hungary with a typical posting of 4–6 years	Longer posting time resulted in increased expatriate openness while higher English language skills led to more willingness to integrate.
Chen and Zhu (2020)	Cross-Cultural Adaptation Experiences of International Scholars in Shanghai	Springer	Semi-structured interviews (Half were pre-prepared, the other half were based on participant responses)	281 international scholars in Shanghai 77% joint venture schools 19% female 81% male 23% ordinary schools 7% female 93% male	Promising future/funding, international environment, and reputation of recruiting university influences expatriates’ decision to take academic positions in Shanghai. Additionally, regional factors and academic factors influenced cross-cultural adaptation with the differing organizational culture of the university and access to familial/social support.
Baluku et al. (2019)	The Role of Selection and Socialization Processes in Career Mobility: Explaining Expatriation and Entrepreneurial Intentions	International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance	Cross-sectional survey using online questionnaires	544 German University students (61.2% female, ages 18–54, mean age 23.1)	Entrepreneurial and expatriate intentions are significantly associated with career orientation and field of study. Additionally, length of study was positively associated with expatriation intention, while negatively associated with entrepreneurial intention.
Lapointe et al. (2022)	Psychological Contract Breach and Organizational Cynicism and Commitment Among Self-Initiated Expatriates vs. Host Country Nationals in the Chinese and Malaysian Transnational Education Sector	Asia Pacific Journal of Management	One-year time-lagged study using surveys at 2 time points	156 employees (SIEs and HCNs) from Chinese and Malaysian operations of a Western higher education institution	SIEs report more organizational cynicism than HCNs but less affective commitment, normative commitment, and continuance commitment.
Abbas et al. (2021)	Can We Have Trust in the Host Government? Self-Esteem, Work Attitudes, and Prejudice of Low-Status Expatriates Living in China	Economics and Sociology	Self-reported survey Analyzed with SEM and hierarchical regression	366 foreign nationals (low-status expatriates) 192 (52.5%) males & 174 (47.5%) female 121 Black (33.1%), 188 (51.4%) Asian, 57 (15.5%) Arab Ages ranged 18–35 years with mean age between 31 and 35	Trust in the host government increased job commitment and reduced turnover; however, pre-formed notions of prejudice negatively impacted expatriate development of trust. The relationship between this trust and work attitudes is moderated by self-esteem.
Fichtnerová and Nathan (2023)	The Role of Local Language Mastery for Foreign Talent Management at Higher Education Institutions: Case Study in Czechia	European Journal of Management Issues	100 Question Survey	211 foreign academics working in HEIs	Mastery of the Czech language positively influenced integration which contributed to the retention of foreign academics while also helping expatriate knowledge acquisition.
Sunguh et al. (2019)	Do Identity and Status Matter? A Social Identity Theory Perspective on the Adaptability of Low-Status Expatriates	Journal of Public Affairs	Hierarchical regression analysis	366 expatriates working in China	High levels of perceived prejudices will negatively affect expatriates’ performance and social self-esteem. Age and level of education positively moderate the relationship between prejudice and self-esteem (i.e., higher education level lessens the negative effect of perceived prejudice on self-esteem. Host national support and self-cognition are also important for overall expatriate success.
Fenech et al. (2020)	Cultural Learning in the Adjustment Process of Academic Expatriates	Cogent Education	Online questionnaire using Likert scale + statistical analysis	103 participants Ages ranging between 45 and 54 50.5% have 12+ years of experience 70% expatriates from a non-Arab culture (45%); have 12 years of experience or more (50.5%); and originate from a non-Arab culture (70%).	Cultural competence and adjustment have a positive relationship that increases with experience and age. Additionally, expatriates from different cultures tend to adjust better following the lines of the Supports the Cultural Distance Paradox.
Mao and Shen (2015)	Cultural Identity Change in Expatriates: A Social Network Perspective	Human Relations	Literature Review	N/A	Organizations can help facilitate opportunities for expatriates to build social networks which have a positive relationship to cultural intelligence. Alongside this, it is important to consider cross-culture relationship dynamics of expatriates’ social networks and their impact on expatriate cultural identity change.
Andersen (2021)	Mapping Expatriate Literature: A Bibliometric Review of the Field From 1998 to 2017 and Identification of Current Research Fonts	International Journal of Human Resource Management	Bibliometric Analysis	Global academic literature	Social capital and perceived social support are rising areas of interest within the field of research on expatriate management, role, and adaptation. Additionally, the key words “MNC,” “adjustment,” and “career,” are central to expatriate literature.
Maertz et al. (2016)	An Episodic Framework of Outgroup Interaction Processing: Integration and Redirection for Expatriate Adjustment Research	American Psychological Association	Literature review	Cross-cultural adjustment research from the 1960s to 2015	Expatriate research has many variance-based models and lacks process-oriented research. Additionally, research has revealed that expatriates are motivated by three basic psychological needs: competence, belongingness, and autonomy from self-determination.
Faeth and Kittler (2020)	Expatriate Management in Hostile Environment from a Multi-Stakeholder Perspective: A Systematic Review	Journal of Global Mobility: The Home of Expatriate Management Research	Literature Review	Global academic literature	Hostile environment conditions, lack of organizational support, conflicting family and social networks, and expatriate stress/maladjustment are positively associated with expatriate adjustment failure, lack of well-being, and work performance.
Dwyer (2018)	An Expatriate’s First 100 Days: What Went Wrong?	Management Teaching Review	Pedagogical/Instructional Design	Target population of students	Cross-cultural learning is an increasingly important subject pertaining to expatriate adjustment. In this light, engaging individuals with material is more valuable than giving definitions.
Al-Tamimi and Abdullateef (2023)	Towards Smooth Transition Enhancing Participation of Expatriates in Academic Context	Cogent Social Sciences	Focus group interviews and thematic analysis	18 female expatriate faculty members from 3 different colleges in Saudi Arabia	Expatriates face challenges in each phase of adaptation (separation, transition, and re-aggregation) which affects their participation and productivity. Family and organizational support are important in this adaptation process.
Filipič Sterle et al. (2018)	Expatriate Family Adjustment: An Overview of Empirical Evidence on Challenges and Resources	Frontiers in Psychology	Narrative review and synthesis of empirical quantitative and qualitative data	Expatriates, their partners, and children from English-speaking Western countries	Main challenges included cultural stress, isolation, identity issues for children, and career loss for partners. Strong family cohesion was a major resource along with organizational/social support.

summarizes the final articles and key findings.

3. Results

Demographic Trends of Expatriate Literature

Demographically (

Table 2. Overview of the Selected Articles.

Characteristic	Details
Gender Ratio (k = 12)	All Male: 0%
	Majority Male: 33.33%
	Equal Male-Female: 8.33%
	Majority Female: 25.00%
	All Female: 33.33%
Type of Expatriates	General Expatriates: 40%
	International Students: 15%
	Self-Initiated Expatriates: 10%
	Expatriate Families/Partners: 10%
	Occupation-Specific Expatriates: 25%
Sample Age (k = 14)	Range in Mean Ages (years): 20–55
	Mean Age and SD: 27.66 ± 6.82
Occupational Diversity (k = 36)	Yes: 30%
	No: 70%
Duration of Stay	Short-Term (<1 year): 20%
	Medium-Term (1–5 years): 50%
	Long-Term (>5 years): 15%
	Unspecified: 15%
Cultural Diversity (N = 36)	Yes: 72%
	No: 28%

Note. k = number of studies that reported these types of data. The literature search ended in May 2025. Gender ratio, sample age, occupational diversity, and cultural diversity are based on studies reporting these variables (N indicated where applicable).

), literature reflects both progress and persistent imbalance with gender representation. While 33.33% of studies had all-female samples and 33.33% reported a majority male sample, only 8.33% achieved gender parity. This imbalance may be caused by drawing samples from typically male-dominated fields, like STEM and international business, which highlights a structural inequity in global labor markets. Moreover, only 30% of studies reported varied occupational backgrounds among participants, while 70% of studies employed occupation-homogeneous samples, limiting the understanding of how professional roles and industries mediate expatriate experiences. Additionally, only 25% of studies paid attention to these occupation-specific expatriates, while 15% attended to international students and 10% to expatriate families/partners. Though this shows a growing interest in the nuanced expatriate types, a significant portion (40%) focused on general expatriates without further categorization. Furthermore, self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) had only 10% representation, suggesting that this increasingly common category—indicating expatriation motivations—remains underexplored in empirical studies.

Concurrently, although the presence of cultural diversity—defined here as the coexistence of individuals from multiple national, linguistic, or ethnic backgrounds within the host environment—was noted in 72% of the studies examined, 28% failed to account for or report on this dimension. Failing to account for cultural diversity poses a threat to uncovering more nuanced insights, such as potential cultural differences, because the absence of information about the specific multicultural context precludes meaningful extrapolation of the finding. Similarly, a majority of samples examined were young adults, with a mean participant age of 27.66 years (SD = 6.82), reinforcing a bias toward early-career professionals or international students while excluding older and mid-career expatriates. Furthermore, the duration of expatriate stay was most commonly medium-term (1–5 years; 50%), while short-term (<1 year) and long-term (>5 years) assignments received less attention. This distribution reflects a possible organizational preference for medium-term assignments and suggests a gap in understanding how assignment length influences adaptation and belongingness outcomes.

The studies also revealed global migration patterns tied to economic hierarchies. Expatriates from developing countries frequently moved to more economically dominant nations but were less likely to hold managerial positions. Conversely, expatriates from highly industrialized countries often held higher-level managerial or senior roles in developing host countries, emphasizing a negative correlation between country of origin and occupational status in the host country. This trend underscores the influence and imbalance of global power dynamics and suggests that expatriate opportunities and workplace integration are partly determined by nationality and perceived economic value.

4. Discussion

Drawing from the literature, four interrelated themes consistently emerged in connection with the four reviewed factors: language, cultural intelligence, identity integration, and family status. As illustrated in

Table 3. Theme Extraction of Factors Affecting Adjustment and Examples.

Factors Affecting Adjustment	Themes	Examples
Language	The importance of linguistic readiness for expatriate training	Limited pre-departure training and low language proficiency caused task and social challenges, while early language development enhanced socialization, belonging, and workplace integration (Engle et al. 2024; Fichtnerová and Nathan 2023; Fenech et al. 2020; Zhang et al. 2018).
Cultural Intelligence	Expatriates with high CQ can quickly activate cultural learning upon arrival—such as engagement in local customs, norms, and values	Cultural intelligence and adjustment promote cultural learning, improving local perceptions and social network formation through alignment with organizational norms (Chen and Zhu 2020; Habti and Elo 2019; Fenech et al. 2020).
Identity Integration	Meaningful relationships and involvement with the local communities contribute to expatriates’ integration of multiple identities	Absence of personality-based pre-departure training increased psychological alienation, while incorporating traits like emotionality and openness earlier fostered trust, intercultural communication, and host participation—enhancing well-being and integration (Hofhuis et al. 2019; Ipek and Paulus 2021; Mumtaz and Nadeem 2023).
Family Status	Family adjustment cannot be overlooked from an emotional, logistical, and psychological perspective	Expatriation can strain family dynamics without a shared purpose, but support from extended family helps reassure children and stabilize relationships (Goede and Holtbrügge 2021; Habti and Elo 2019; Shah et al. 2019).

and later elaborated, linguistic readiness, cultural intelligence, multidimensional identity, and family adjustment represent central components of adaptation that should be incorporated into pre-departure training and the expatriate selection process.

4.1. Theme 1: Language Proficiency and Social Acceptance

Language emerges as a foundational component of global work, shaping expatriate adaptation, both professionally and socially (Vulchanov 2020). Despite the prevalence of English as a global lingua franca, some multinational corporations (MNCs) are reluctant to formalize its use in the workplace (Zhang et al. 2018). While English is frequently used in multinational corporations, reliance on it alone does not guarantee wider integration into host societies. For instance, expatriates in Hungary may operate effectively in English within corporate settings, but integration into the broader community often requires Hungarian; similarly, in Czech higher education institutions, Czech proficiency is indispensable (Fichtnerová and Nathan 2023). As a result, language-sensitive practices become essential for effective communication and supporting identity integration.

Engle et al. (2024) aimed to examine how Japanese expatriates adjusted to Hungarian workplaces where English dominated communication. Findings revealed that those with higher proficiency in English were more likely to integrate into the workplace and local community. Their work highlights how language proficiency impacts not only professional tasks, but also overall well-being. Notably, many respondents reported receiving little to no pre-departure training, instead relying heavily on informal training from locals of the host country, impacting practical functioning and emotional adjustment. While this knowledge transfer was deemed sufficient by some, expatriates with only beginner-level English proficiency experienced notable difficulties—barriers to completing practical tasks and managing social and emotional transitions. Furthermore, the lack of formal HR support at the subsidiary level aggravated these difficulties, underscoring structural inefficiencies in MNC preparedness as a whole—at both the subsidiary and corporate levels.

Similarly, Fichtnerová and Nathan (2023) studied the role of language in the integration of foreign academics in Czech higher education institutions where Czech dominated communication. Language was highlighted as a barrier to integration among foreign academics as, in this context, limited Czech language skills prior to arrival strained the orientation processes, administration navigation, and social connections. This strain had ramifications of decreased well-being, as expatriates reported frustration, isolation, and limited access to institutional resources. Many Czech citizens were often reluctant to speak to foreigners lacking Czech proficiency, while expatriates themselves cited time constraints due to work obligations as a major obstacle to language acquisition. Though formal pre-departure training was negligible, informal instruction from employers or local acquaintances offered some support—emphasizing the value of host country engagement.

Across both contexts, the desire for social acceptance among expatriates emerges as a consistent theme. Zhang et al. (2018) examined the role language skills play in Nordic expatriates’ willingness to socialize in China such that stronger language skills not only enhanced willingness to socialize but also promoted semblance to the host culture and deeper community ties in the study examining the relationship between language and identity in China. Language also influences how expatriates are perceived by local employers and communities—i.e., Chinese workers deemed Nordic expatriate’s English skills as inadequate. Additionally, expatriates’ failure to make an effort to learn the language was detrimental to workplace relationships and resulted in expatriates being placed in “social categories.” As Chen and Zhu’s (2020) study of expatriates in Shanghai demonstrates, language proficiency interacts with cultural intelligence, and together these factors shape deeper belonging. While Zhang and his coresearchers ultimately found that pre-departure training would improve workplace integration, Engle and his coresearchers reported that in-country learning fostered deeper social belonging. This discrepancy may stem from differences in the host county’s linguistic expectations, or the roles expatriates assume, suggesting that language functions not just as a communication tool, but also as a bridge to identity development and belonging. Taken together, these differences suggest that language preparation strategies and success are context-dependent, but are consistently a determinant of both professional adjustment and psychological well-being across contexts.

With all the previous findings taken into consideration, a key problem in global mobility is highlighted: while language acquisition is critical to expatriation integration, institutional support systems—specifically pre-departure training and subsidiary preparedness—remain underdeveloped. Integrating across studies, language is both a functional skill and relational/identity-building resource that shapes emotional security, sense of belonging, and professional success. A dual-track approach is therefore recommended: strengthening basic language and intercultural preparation before relocation, followed by equipping subsidiaries to provide ongoing, locally contextualized support. Both measures are necessary to ensure expatriates can navigate tasks and relationships effectively, ultimately enhancing well-being and the sense of belonging. fostering smoother transitions and more sustainable global assignments.

Theme #1 Summary: Lack of pre-departure training and limited host country language proficiency led to task and social difficulties, while early language development improved expatriate socialization, enhanced well-being, fostered a sense of belonging, and supported smoother workplace integration.

4.2. Theme 2: Cultural Intelligence (CQ) and Social Networks

Expatriates frequently face pressure to conform to the social norms and values of the host country, driven by a desire for acceptance and belonging (Fenech et al. 2020). While these pressures facilitate cultural diffusion, successful acclimation and cultural intelligence (CQ) are more deliberately cultivated through intentional engagement with local customs, values, and social norms. Critically, this development can begin prior to arrival.

Chen and Zhu (2020) examined the effects of cross-cultural mobility on academic scholars in Shanghai. Findings illustrate the value of bilateral communication prior to departure. Scholars who visited China before moving and interacted with local academics exhibited a stronger understanding of cultural norms, which accelerated their adaptation upon arrival. This proactive engagement improved cross-cultural understanding and reduced some anxieties associated with short-term relocation, indicating that early contact improves well-being. Additionally, both regional advantages—Shanghai’s professional opportunities—and academic motivations—career advancement—enhanced expatriate involvement in local communities, suggesting that internal motivation plays a critical role in identity building and cultural adaptation. Nonetheless, Chen also found that differentiated factors such as organizational culture and familial and societal support, contributed to varied outcomes in expatriate integration, underscoring that cultural intelligence alone does not guarantee cultural integration. Integration is a more complex and uneven process shaped by structural conditions, host-country receptivity, and individual identity negotiations.

The role of social networks in fostering CQ and social capacity is further emphasized in Habti and Elo’s (2019) study on self-initiated expatriates (SIEs). One-sixth of respondents reported challenges in workplace integration, largely due to rigid schedule and cultural dissimilarities—common barriers to forming effective, functional social relationships. These barriers limited professional growth and aided emotional exhaustion and loneliness. Furthermore, managers highlighted that expatriates were often evaluated by peers not only by performance, but also by adherence to implicit cultural norms. Such findings reveal that integration is not simply an individual skill, but a socially mediated process in which host-country expectations and organizational dynamics can facilitate or obstruct belonging (Habti and Elo 2019).

In addition, Fenech et al. (2020) explored the relationship between cultural learning and adjustment of self-initiated academic expatriates. Findings suggest that cultural competence varied with multiple factors: it tended to increase with international experience and age but decreased with rank and education level. Interestingly, individuals from culturally dissimilar backgrounds often adjusted more effectively than those with cultural similarities to the host country—contradictory to the respondents from Habti’s study attributing the lack of workplace integration to cultural dissimilarities. These contradictions illustrate the inherent difficulties of cultural integration, where outcomes are not linear but shaped by the interaction of background, context, and support systems. Consequently, careful expatriate selection—taking into account prior experience, age, and cultural background—can significantly influence the efficacy of pre-departure training and the likelihood of successful integration. Taken together, these studies show that CQ is a dynamic skill, not an innate trait, shaped by social exposure, motivation, and structural conditions—all which impact overall well-being.

However, cultural integration must be understood as a distinct, ongoing challenge—requiring not only CQ but also inclusive organizational practices, sustained host-country engagement, and supportive social and familial networks. Effective pre-departure preparation should thus include: (1) cultural orientation, (2) opportunities for early local engagement, (3) training in social networking and intercultural communications, and (4) thoughtful expatriate selection based on readiness to adapt. When these elements align, expatriates are more likely to develop the cultural fluency needed to integrate successfully and achieve a sense of belonging within the host country.

Theme #2 Summary: Insufficient cultural orientation and limited social networking, combined with inadequate expatriate selection criteria, hindered integration and well-being. Conversely, higher CQ—cultivated through early engagement, networking, and experiential factors—correlated with improved integration and stronger sense of belonging; but integration ultimately requires navigating persistent complexities beyond the scope of individual skills. Moreover, cultural integration proved to be a more problematic process than CQ development alone could resolve, with outcomes varying widely depending on structural, organizational, and social factors.

4.3. Theme 3: Identity Integration and Belongingness

Identity integration is a crucial component of successful adaptation and acculturation in the host country. Relocation inherently disrupts social circles and challenges existing cultural identities, often prompting a shift that blends elements of the home and host country (Mao and Shen 2015). According to Kim (2015), acculturation requires deculturation—loosening ties to one’s original cultural norms—to enable identity building. This transformative process is facilitated by the development of CQ, supporting cultural adaptation and securing psychological well-being during the transition period.

Mumtaz and Nadeem (2023) features identity integration as the development of a common social identity between expatriates and host country nationals. While much of the literature emphasizes the need for expatriate adjustment, they highlight the reciprocal nature of this process—the host community’s openness and trust-building efforts significantly impact the expatriate integration outcomes. Their study found that valuable work environments and regular interactions between expatriates and locals fostered trust and mutual understanding, which in turn strengthened expatriates’ willingness to integrate and their sense of belonging. These findings underscore the importance of intercultural communication as a mechanism for cultivating shared group membership and identity alignment.

In addition to face-to-face networks, digital networks and social media play a nuanced role in shaping identity integration. Hofhuis’ research examining the acculturation of international sojourners in the Netherlands demonstrates that the participation in host-country activities and maintenance of cultural traditions is both positively associated with well-being. However, while maintaining ties to the home country through social media provided emotional support, it also correlated with psychological alienation—a sense of disconnection from the host environment. This dual effect suggests that digital connections can be beneficial in a way of countering stress, but it may also inadvertently hinder identity transformation and local engagement. Therefore, expatriates should be guided when using social media in a way that sustains home ties while also building local connections. Incorporating this dual-network strategy into pre-departure training could also help expatriates develop supportive host-country relationships before arrival, facilitating smoother identity building.

Alongside this, personality traits play a pivotal role in expatriate integrations. Ipek and Paulus’s (2021) study examining personality and expatriate willingness found that emotionality negatively affected expatriation engagement across both high- and low- security environments. Conscientiousness influenced expatriation willingness primarily in relation to perceptions of the host country’s safety. Furthermore, openness to experience correlated positively with willingness to engage in secure environments. These findings indicate that personality traits interact with environmental perceptions to shape expatriate behavior, suggesting that selection and training processes should account for individual differences in emotional stability, conscientiousness, and openness. This underscores the psychological dimension of adaptation where certain traits can enhance resilience and well-being during the uncertainty of transitioning.

In all, identity integration is not solely about cultural fit but also about achieving relational and psychological stability in a new environment. It is shaped by many factors including interpersonal trust, intercultural communication, social networks (physically and digitally), and personality characteristics. When organizations support trust-building, intercultural communication, and personality-based preparation, expatriates are more likely to experience meaningful integration and a lasting sense of belonging.

Theme #3 Summary: Limited attention to personality traits and overreliance on home country ties hindered identity integration while social engagement, trust-building, and moderated digital ties to the home and host country led to the building of a common social identity which contributed to the perceived sense of belongingness and well-being.

4.4. Theme 4: Family Status and Systemic Support

Family dynamics play a pivotal role in the expatriation process, influencing emotional, logistical, and psychological outcomes for all involved. Relocation not only challenges the professional identity of the expatriate but also introduces strain into familial structure—an important source of support. This is especially true when there is an absence of a shared sense of purpose among family members (Shah et al. 2019). However, studies have shown that support from extended family members can provide emotional reassurance, aid in child-related responsibilities, and contribute to the overall stability of familial relationships during expatriation (Goede and Holtbrügge 2021; Habti and Elo 2019; Shah et al. 2019).

Despite its critical relevance, Goede and Holtbrügge (2021) studied the methodological limitations that have historically hindered the advancement of research on family involvement in expatriation. Much of the existing literature is shaped by narrow conceptualization of the family, often defaulting to the traditional, nuclear model composed of a breadwinner husband, a homemaker wife, and dependent children. This generalization has limited the representation of diverse family structure, and it reflects the Western-centric orientation of much of the current literature. A more context-sensitive and inclusive approach to defining family-types—considering cultural origin, host country variations, and non-traditional structures—would offer a more accurate representation of contemporary expatriate experiences. Furthermore, research in this area has been limited by sampling challenges. Scholars often rely on non-probability sampling and a mixture of methodological outlets, which inhibit true generalizability. Notably, younger children are rarely included in these studies, despite their significance in the relocation process. Future research should explore the inclusion of children not only as dependents but as active agents whose psychological adjustment, sociocultural adaptation, and evolving cultural identity can substantially affect the family’s overall acclimation. Future research should also include mixed-methods approaches that capture the multifaceted nature of family adjustment. Ultimately, determining the specific family type involved in expatriation can help assess the level and nature of support needed, contributing to the effective pre-departure training and corporate planning.

In the context of self-initiated expatriation (SIE), particularly highly skilled professionals, recent studies have started to address the previously neglected aspects of family dynamics. For instance, Habti and Elo’s (2019) study on the global mobility of Finnish SIEs, emphasized the importance of family-level analyses and the adaptation experiences of expatriate children. Educational outcomes among these children have been found to vary based on the socioeconomic background, further reinforcing the need to examine the familial influence at multiple levels. When children were able to adapt well, expatriates reported lower stress and increased motivation to integrate abroad, linking identity building and CQ to family well-being and stability.

Similarly, Shah et al. (2019) explore the career decisions of married Indian female IT expatriates reveals that family support is a central factor in international assignment uptake. Clarity and mutual understanding between spouses, combined with practical support from extended family and household help, were found to facilitate expatriation. Although some male partners were reluctant to assume caregiving responsibilities of the children due to career conflicts, the majority (22 out of 24) were ultimately supportive of their wives’ decisions. Contrary to prior research addressed in their study, many women expressed a preference for short-term assignments after having children, suggesting that familial obligations do not necessarily inhibit career ambition but require thoughtful negotiation. These findings illustrate that the professional advancement of Indian women abroad is closely tied to their ability to navigate familial expectation and support systems.

At a broader level, family status also mediates the interface between expatriates and the host society. The family is often the primary social unit through which contact with the local community occurs—through schools, neighborhood activities, and daily routines. Thus, family well-being and adaptability directly shape how expatriates experience the host culture and, conversely, how host institutions and communities respond to foreign families. This reciprocal process highlights that successful adjustment is not only an individual or organizational outcome, but also a societal one. The intersection between the expatriate’s family system and host-country social structures therefore represents a critical but underexplored dimension of cross-cultural adaptation.

Integrating the studies, family systems significantly shape the expatriation journey, influencing adjustment outcomes and career decisions. Currently, literature suffers from limited methodological diversity and narrow family definitions. By addressing these gaps—through more inclusive definitions of family, larger sampling, child-inclusive research, and mixed-methods approaches—future studies can offer a deeper and more accurate understanding of family dynamics in global mobility. Organizations should, therefore, conduct pre-departure training in terms of language, CQ, and active identity building involving the whole family to ensure psychological preparedness for the transition.

Theme #4 Summary: Narrow family definitions and limited inclusion of dependents (i.e., children and extended family) in research lead to reduced understanding of family influence on the adaptation process. But it is evident that family support and shared spousal goals can aid expatriate integration, professional success, and overall well-being.

5. Future Research and Limitations

Highlighted by the literature review, there are three main gaps in the research. Firstly, research lacks generalizability due to limited sample size, type, gender, age, and geographical location. Most of the studies contain samples from European countries and the US with a few from India, Pakistan, China, Japan, Saudi Arabia and Nigeria. This overrepresentation of Western, and more specifically Anglo-centric, contexts has produced a body of literature that does not adequately reflect the diversity of expatriate experiences worldwide. It is important to highlight that expatriates are not a homogeneous group and will face many different types of challenges that depend on cultural distance, assignment characteristics, motivation, and many other specific nuances. Additionally, as stated in Table 2, only 8.33% of studies reviewed reached gender parity in sampling, 40% of samples categorized their expatriate type as “General,” and the mean age of samples were 27.66. Future research must therefore move away from Western- and Anglo-centric frameworks and conduct more diverse sampling in terms of geography, gender, type, and age to formulate research that is more representative and globally relevant. By doing so, expatriate research can produce insights that are more generalizable but also context-bound, culturally sensitive, and capable of informing effective interventions across different contexts.

Moreover, future research should more clearly define and operationalize the concept of expatriate “failure.” Current literature uses the term inconsistently—ranging from premature return from assignment to underperformance, career stagnation, or the inability to develop a sense of belonging in the host environment. These varying definitions are often applied without considering the specific constellations that shape outcomes, such as country of origin and destination, assignment length, family accompaniment, and job role. Without a shared understanding of what constitutes “failure,” it is difficult to compare studies or develop targeted interventions. Future work should therefore investigate how failure is measured, under what circumstances it is most likely, and how individual- and contextual-level factors interact to produce divergent adaptation trajectories. Such clarity would not only advance theoretical precision but also support organizations in tailoring support mechanisms to different expatriate profiles.

Secondly, most research types are cross-sectional which does not allow us to see how belongingness and adaptation may foster over time. Belongingness and adaptation are time-dependent processes that rely on the gradual development of comfortability to the environment that leads to expatriate integration (Levett-Jones and Lathlean 2009). Therefore, cross-sectional research may not accurately reflect how long it takes an individual to experience this feeling or stabilize their position in the host country. As a result, factor trajectories may differ. For instance, identity integration and family adaptation may need more external support and time to develop while CQ and language may need less of either or both. Longitudinal research is therefore critical for understanding the differing timelines of adaptation and the dynamic interplay of these factors. Furthermore, there is a lack of applied research testing strategies, meaning there have not been many experimental interventions correlated to these factors followed by research to study how adaptation and belonging can change. Therefore, future research may prove beneficial to investigate organizational support—e.g., HR resources, company policies, inclusion programs—and individual pre-departure training and implement different interventions to study how to improve adaptation and belongingness. For instance, a recent large study showed that a quick 30 min social-belonging intervention done with college students greatly improved their progress in college (Walton et al. 2023). Are initiatives like this enough to enhance expatriate success as well? Identifying effectiveness of training interventions as well as contingencies should be at the forefront for organizations that send folks abroad as part of their investment in talent management.

Finally, current expatriate literature underrepresents the effects of host country attitudes, xenophobia, and structural intolerance on adaptation. These factors can be seen to impact identity integration through personality correspondence, trust formation, and network development. This aspect is critical, as studied by Fei (2023) and Abbas et al. (2021), because such prejudices may hinder expatriate efforts to integrate despite high language proficiency and cultural intelligence, both of which are key components aiding overall integration. We also believe it is key to mention that belongingness is subjective to the expatriate and most studies examine expatriates and belongingness without considering aspects such as economic booms, crises, or policy and political opinions/stance on cross-border migration. This highlights external systematic barriers that need to be explored in relation to expatriate well-being and belonging.

Taken together, limitations of this study include the overrepresentation of Western- and Anglo-centric data, the lack of organizational-level analysis, and the heavy reliance on self-reported data. These issues point to a broader structural challenge in the field: the mix and complexity of themes (language, CQ, identity, family) and the diversity of real-world environments make it difficult to synthesize findings into a coherent picture. Future research must therefore not only expand representation but also develop integrative frameworks that account for the complexity of expatriate adaptation across cultural contexts. By addressing these issues, the field can increase cross-cultural understanding, expand equity and representation, strengthen or revise theoretical concepts, and enhance global social mobility.

6. Conclusions

Though there is a growing frequency of expatriation and international students, organizations are still facing expatriate failure, which can result in considerable costs for both the organization and the expatriate. This literature review emphasizes that expatriate success relies on multiple processes and factors: professional qualifications, pre-departure preparation, strategic selection processes, and the ability to adapt to host cultures.

Key factors identified as influencing this process of adaptation and belonging include language proficiency, cultural intelligence, identity integration, and family obligation. Language serves as a tool for communication and an avenue to foster trust and facilitate local engagement. Identity integration helps expatriates combine multiple cultural identities, while the simultaneously developing cultural intelligence supports effective functioning across diverse cultural contexts. Both ultimately help form sources of emotional support, such as local connections. Finally, family obligation plays an influential role in the decision-making process for expatriation, and familial assistance provides an important avenue for emotional and social support. These internal and external dimensions are significantly influenced by relationships and experiential learning. In conclusion, these findings highlight the complex, multidimensional nature of expatriate adjustment that suggests future research and organizational practice to engage more deeply with the interpersonal and developmental dimensions of global mobility.