Fostering in a Digital Age: Evaluating a Tailored Online Safety Training Programme for Foster Carers

Abstract

Foster carers are a hard-to-reach population who carry a vast bureaucratic and emotional load. They need tailored and specialised training, support, and advice regarding the digital lives of the children and young people (CYP) they care for. Looked-after CYP are vulnerable in multiple ways and are particularly at risk in the digital age. Their susceptibility to online risks raises complex challenges. The training programme Fostering in a Digital Age was designed to support foster carers’ understanding of and responses to the digital lives of looked-after CYP, including both positive and negative aspects. It is research-informed and provides relevant knowledge, resources, tools, and skills. This exploratory study sought the opinions of foster carers and social workers regarding the strengths and limitations of the programme and recommendations for improving it. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten foster carers who had completed the programme and ten social workers who accessed the programme for evaluation purposes. Participants’ experiences and reflections were analysed using thematic analysis. Resulting themes highlighted the relevance of the training programme, with participants recognising the importance of digital lives for looked-after CYP and the need for tailored guidance. The programme was viewed as flexible, accessible, and user-friendly, with comprehensive coverage of key concepts and reflective activities that enhanced carers’ understanding and confidence. Its child-centred and sustainable design enabled carers to apply learning “as and when” needed and to collaborate with CYP to promote safer digital engagement. However, some participants found the volume of resources overwhelming and reported navigation challenges or digital anxiety. Social workers emphasised professional and structural improvements, while carers focused on the programme’s relational benefits and practical relevance. Both groups recommended wider promotion through local authorities and fostering agencies and adaptations to make the programme suitable for social workers and carers with differing digital skills. Overall, fostering in a digital age effectively provided foster carers with tailored knowledge to support CYP online, prevent harm, and respond to adverse digital experiences, aligning with Self-Determination Theory by supporting carers’ autonomy, competence, and relatedness. This evaluation also revealed gaps in online safety knowledge among both foster carers and social workers, highlighting opportunities for the development of future training programmes.

1. Introduction

1.1. Looked-After CYP Online

Children and Young People (CYP; under the age of 18 years) enjoy the many benefits of digital technology and the internet; however, they are also likely to experience online risks or encounter potentially scary or harmful online content or contacts (e.g., Livingstone et al. 2011; Livingstone and Stoilova 2021). Looked-after children, i.e., those CYP who are currently, or have been, in care, are a specific group that has been identified as particularly vulnerable (Finn and Kerman 2004; Bruskas 2008; El-Asam and Katz 2018). Traumatic childhood, which may be the case for many looked-after CYP, can be associated with engaging in or encountering online risk activities (Badillo-Urquiola et al. 2017).

When examining specific online risks, Katz and El-Asam (2020) found that CYP with care experience (n = 358) are more likely to share ‘nudes’, encounter extreme/dangerous content, contact adults, and visit websites meant for adults. They spent more time online and had more difficulties managing their online lives compared to non-vulnerable CYP. Their mental health challenges and poor e-safety support (from carers) play a significant part (El-Asam et al. 2022). Saying that, sexual exploitation is often the main concern; the internet facilitates the risk of dating violence and sex trafficking, to which this group of CYP with complex high-level needs, is especially vulnerable (Badillo-Urquiola et al. 2017, 2019; Sage and Jackson 2022).

Despite their likelihood of experiencing more risks online, and potential harms, compared to others, looked-after CYP also share more positive experiences online, such as access to information, learning and creativity, socialisation, coping, and relaxation (El-Asam et al. 2022). Staying in touch with biological family is often encouraged among looked-after CYP. According to Sage and Jackson (2022), the internet facilitates this process, as a key benefit for this group is the ability to actively search for and re-establish connections with family members after being placed in foster care. Compared with traditional methods such as limited house phone calls, access to smartphones has enabled more frequent and extended communication with families (Roche et al. 2015; Denby et al. 2016).

Digital contact can facilitate and support improved relationships between looked-after CYP and their birth families (Alford et al. 2019; Macdonald et al. 2017; Simpson 2020). However, this is not always safe for CYP when such contact is not allowed offline, or when the contact is unsolicited. As such, it is important to consider the benefits of using technology for this vulnerable young population while also acknowledging the presence of online risks and the role of carers.

1.2. Foster Carers’ Role and Training

Foster carers play an essential role in the safeguarding of CYP in their care, through managing their physical and mental health in various ways and encouraging growth and development (Shdaimah and Rosen 2020). It is a challenging task; it often involves managing extreme behaviours and emotional states, which can be overwhelming, unnerving, and sometimes intolerable (Onions 2018). In the digital context, foster carers are also responsible for the online safety of the CYP in their care; however, research clearly demonstrates that CYP in care are less likely to receive guidance on online safety from their carer, despite the urgent need (El-Asam et al. 2022). Instead, foster carers often restrict CYP from having internet access with the intention of tackling online risks. Many highlight concerns about implementing rules regarding technology (Guardian Saints 2017). Carers report feeling under-supported and undervalued (Maclay et al. 2006).

Foster carers, in the UK, must complete the Training, Support, and Development (TSD) Standards within their first year (18 months for family carers). This includes seven competencies such as safeguarding children, promoting development, managing behaviour, teamwork, communication, and record-keeping, ensuring they meet national care standards and support the child’s well-being effectively (Department for Education 2011). Safeguarding mandatory training, keeping children safe from harm, does not explicitly cover online safety (risks and harms). This is a significant concern given CYP dependence on digital technology. Along with this challenge, most approved foster carers were in their 50s (41%), and 60s (27%) (Department for Education 2022), with only 10% aged between 20 and 39, therefore suggesting that most would be less digitally skilled and up to date with the digital world, compared to the younger generation, and unaware of the potential risks.

El-Asam et al. (2021b) consulted 70 foster carers on online safety and related training; 75% of the sample were 51+ years of age, 66% did not have a university degree, 50% looked after two or more CYP. While the majority explained that their training ‘does not’ or ‘partially’ covers online safety, when it is covered, it is often minimal or outdated. Foster carers who had 11 or more years of experience (12%) were most likely to have received their training more than 5 years ago, followed by male foster carers (10%). Despite kinship carers being the least likely to have received training, if they had done so, they were the group most likely to have received it recently. Up to date training is essential to ensure that carers are aware of current risks, dangers, and methods to deal with these situations. Qualitative findings highlighted the challenging lives of foster carers, managing the safety and well-being of looked-after CYP while supporting them to lead safer online lives. With little or outdated knowledge regarding online safety, many carers did not feel sufficiently confident in handling difficult or high-risk digital situations, often due to inadequate training.

El-Asam et al. (2021a) also considered looked-after CYP’s perspectives on online safety in foster care and the role of the foster carer. 40 looked-after CYP took part, from six local authorities across the country. 81% of those CYP explained, if they were an adult taking care of a child, they would be “nervous about some of the risky or hurtful things that could happen to that child online, or on a smartphone”. In their discussion, they reflected on unfair treatment regarding “digital lives” in comparison to foster carers’ children, undermining equality within the household. Overreaction, mistrust, and inconsistent rules within and across placements were also highlighted.

While acknowledging some of the risks and the benefits of digital lives, participants expressed that “older” foster carers do not share the same understanding of digital lives and that “taking technology away” as a form of punishment can instigate further stress and damage the relationship. Hence, they are hesitant about talking to their foster carers about possible online risks or harms, with one stating: “I would be scared to death to say anything”. When asked to provide recommendations for how they wish to be supported, participants stressed the role of empathy and understanding, with one stating “shadow me for a day” online. They also mentioned the need for the same rules for everyone in the household and wanted carers to ‘trust and not overreact’, help CYP stay connected with friends and family, respect privacy and autonomy, and also have fun with them, on social media (El-Asam et al. 2021a).

1.3. Online Safety Training: Fostering in the Digital Age

Following a consultation with 70 foster carers, and 40 looked-after CYP, a specialised child-centric, online, training programme referred to as ‘Fostering in the Digital Age’ was developed. From the consultations, it was concluded that developing autonomy for foster carers and CYP improving knowledge and competence may be crucial in helping foster carers relate to the experiences of CYP online, which may result in better online safety communication. Hence, this programme is underpinned by Self-Determination Theory (SDT). It provides a valuable framework for designing effective adult and professional training. Learning is most effective when the psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported (Deci and Ryan 2000; Ryan and Deci 2017; Martela and Riekki 2018). Training environments that meet these needs can foster intrinsic motivation, engagement, and knowledge retention (Deci et al. 1991; Niemiec and Ryan 2009), whereas controlling approaches can undermine motivation and reduce learning value.

Through a Learning Management System (LMS), this programme enables foster carers to exercise autonomy in their learning by determining when to begin, pause, and resume the programme. The design and instructional approach intentionally promote carers’ sense of autonomy and professional judgement in making contextually appropriate decisions regarding online safety, rather than prescribing uniform or “one size fits all” solutions. This approach recognises that each child’s developmental needs, experiences, and digital behaviours are unique, and that foster carers are best positioned to interpret and respond to these individual differences in ways that support effective safeguarding. The programme further emphasises the importance of autonomy among looked-after CYP, particularly those aged twelve and above, who increasingly use digital technologies to communicate with peers and manage life’s stresses. It encourages foster carers to engage in collaborative and negotiated discussions about online safety, ensuring that young people feel heard, respected, and empowered to participate in decisions affecting their digital lives. Such practices align with the principles of participatory safeguarding and reinforce the child’s right to agency within safe and developmentally appropriate boundaries.

Recognising that foster carers differ in their confidence, digital literacy, and attitudes towards technology, the programme continuously reinforces the value of relatedness—that is, fostering meaningful engagement between carers and CYP around their online experiences. Carers are encouraged to demonstrate genuine interest in looked after CYP’s digital activities, to validate their online skills, and to promote positive online behaviours. This relational approach enables carers and CYP to connect through shared digital contexts, which may enhance mutual understanding and facilitate open, trust-based communication about online risks and opportunities.

At a broader level, the programme aims to strengthen carers’ competence in online safeguarding by developing their knowledge of CYP’s digital practices, the range of online risks and harms, and the potential benefits of digital engagement. It emphasises that digital life constitutes the “new normal” for CYP in today’s society, whose realities differ markedly from previous generations. By adopting a child-centred perspective, the programme seeks to enhance foster carers’ digital competence and empathy, supporting them to guide CYP toward safer and more balanced online participation.

In embedding the principles of autonomy, relatedness, and competence throughout the programme, the programme deliberately avoids prescriptive instruction. Instead, it positions foster carers as reflective practitioners who are trusted to make informed and context-sensitive decisions to safeguard CYP online. The LMS framework and programme content together provide structured support, guidance, and signposting to resources, thereby enabling carers to navigate the complex and evolving challenges of CYP’s digital lives with confidence and professional agency.

This programme is also aligned with TSD training, as suggested by the Department for Education (2012), which stresses the importance of psychological and communication skills in foster care. Training is based on attachment and trauma-informed care to understand how early trauma impacts CYP’s development and behaviour. Training also includes managing challenging behaviours using de-escalation and emotional regulation methods. To handle the emotional demands of their role, foster carers are taught about the roles of emotional resilience and self-care, empathy, understanding the child’s experience, and effective communication skills (e.g., clarity, respect, and active listening). Carers also learn to recognise and support mental health challenges (e.g., anxiety or depression), ensuring CYP receive the help they need.

1.4. Training Structure and Need for Evaluation

Fostering in the Digital Age is unique in that it is based on consultations with foster carers and looked-after CYP, aligned with Department for Education (2012) foster carer competencies, online safety standards, UK laws (e.g., The Equality Act 2010; The Children Act 2004), and up to date research evidence on online risks, harms, and benefits. Moreover, it is an online and Continuing Professional Development (CPD)-accredited programme (11 h). Considering foster carers’ limited access to training, their busy and challenging role, this training provides convenience; by utilising an LMS, trainees could complete it at their own pace, using their smartphones or computers. This LMS allows them to manage and save their progress across eight modules. In their Learning Pocket, they can save resources they might need in the future. Modules are split to cover the full range of online risks/harms, with a supporting library of resources, videos, case studies, reflections, and assessments. Trainees are supported and evaluated by a specialised trainer for the duration of their programme. Fostering in a Digital Age is comprehensive and is tailored to the needs of foster carers and looked-after CYP and informed by both empirical research and consultations.

The programme’s eight modules covered the following: (1) How to start securely: covers topics on security controls, settings, and general debates on digital lives. (2) Positive uses of technology: explores the benefits that being online offers to CYP. (3) Fake news and disinformation: looks at issues surrounding the reliability of content and information that CYP see online. (4) Harmful, high-risk content: explores risks such as violent or extremist material, content related to eating disorders, self-harm and suicide, and material that is sexually explicit. (5) Cyberbullying and cyberaggressions: aims to help foster carers recognise the difference between banter and bullying while exploring different types of cyberaggressions. (6) Healthy relationships, sexting, and harmful sexual behaviours: highlights that technology can be used by CYP to behave in harmful sexual ways, to send inappropriate sexts, or to perpetrate online sexual abuse or harassment. (7) Cyberscams: outlines different types of online scams and deception, such as phishing, hoaxes, and online challenges. (8) Problematic internet use: explores the ways CYP can develop problematic attitudes and behaviours towards the internet, spending excessive and compulsive time online (Appendix A).

Although online safety experts have been consulted in the construction of this programme, it is yet to be evaluated. The purpose of this report is to consider foster carers’ (trainees’) and social workers’ (evaluators’) perceptions and views on (1) the need for this programme (2) its strengths, limitations/challenges, and (3) recommendations. This may be helpful, for local authorities, fostering agencies, and foster carers who may consider this programme in the future.

2. Methods

2.1. Design and Participants

This is a qualitative evaluative study, using a semi-structured interview with an aim to critically evaluate the Fostering in the Digital Age programme. This study is exploratory in its nature and does not intend to generalise or determine causality. Using purposive sampling, the researcher recruited 10 professionals within social work (evaluators) and 10 foster carers (trainees). Of the evaluators, two were male and eight were female. Four represented local authorities, and four represented an independent agency; the two other participants chose not to specify their organisations. They referred to their roles as follows: supervisors (n = 5), a social work lecturer, a practice support consultant, a registered manager, and a foster carer training and qualifications manager.

Of the 10 trainees, 2 were male and 8 were female, 6 work for a local authority, 1 for an independent agency, and 3 are unspecified. Apart from one foster carer, all had experience of more than 4 years. Four provided long term, foster care, one provided short term, four provided respite, and two provided emergency foster care (Appendix B).

2.2. Materials

2.2.1. Semi-Structured Interview

An interview protocol/guide was developed by the research team and consisted of eight overarching questions. Interviews were conducted online. As a semi-structured interview, questions were open-ended and focused on different elements of the evaluation, such as overall impressions, main advantages and challenges, thoughts on the accessibility of the programme, improvements, and recommendations (Appendix C).

Participants, trainees, and evaluators, were asked 9 overarching open-ended questions, and prompts adapted to their role. The questions explored their background and relevant experience, including current and previous roles and employer type. They were asked about their overall impressions of the training programme, its relevance, comprehensiveness, and usefulness for foster carers and CYP. The interviews also examined perceived advantages and disadvantages of the programme, including accessibility, ease of navigation, practicality, and sustainability. Participants were invited to provide recommendations for improvement, such as programme content, length, navigation, and practical applicability. Questions also addressed ways to increase accessibility and participation, prior online safety training experiences, and the need for similar training for social workers. Finally, participants were given the opportunity to share any additional comments or insights.

2.2.2. Reflections and Assessment

At the end of each module, trainees were presented with a few case studies (scenarios) followed by open ended questions that sought trainees’ reflections and views. This form of assessment aimed to determine trainees’ understanding of the programme content. Some reflections were shorter questions, such as “What might make some parents and carers find it difficult to keep up with the online world?” whilst others took the form of scenarios or case studies. Reflections had to be submitted before the trainee could move on to the next module. Once submitted, the trainer was alerted and able to check the trainees’ responses to ensure an adequate level of understanding; feedback was given accordingly.

2.2.3. Resources and Tools

The programme was supported by resources and tools throughout the modules, with many embedded into the programme content (across modules) itself and others provided at the end of a topic as additional supplementary materials. The programme offered access to a rich resource library where trainees can find articles, case studies, help and support documents, in-depth briefings, and short “Minute Reads”. Within this range of 170+ resources, trainees could find materials discussing topics such as mobile apps, age-appropriate content, safeguarding, social media, mental health, etc., and were able to save and download each resource in a ‘learner pocket’. These were downloadable PDF documents that were designed to be used in practice within the foster home. For example, trainees could download checklists, e.g., ‘About devices in our home’ and ‘When did we last check settings?’ and conversation starters or ‘What if’ cards, which could be used to start discussions about tricky topics.

2.2.4. Trainer

A CPD accredited trainer, monitored training in general, and was available to respond to any programme related questions, concerns and monitor progress. Once a trainee completed a reflection, their response is sent to the trainer to be read through to ensure that they have understood the module content and have been able to apply the knowledge they learned. When the trainee had completed the programme and finished all the reflections, the trainer received an email notification. At this endpoint, the trainer contacted the trainee to congratulate them on completing the programme and issued them a certificate. Trainees were also able to provide their home address so that a paper copy of the certificate could be posted out to them.

2.3. Procedure

Following purposive sampling, and personal communication, participants (trainees and evaluators) were provided, via email, with an information sheet and consent form to be read and completed prior to any interview being held. Confidentiality, anonymity, data protection, and the right to withdraw were all explained. All participants have provided written or verbal informed consent.

The training programme was initially advertised through social media adverts, local authorities, independent agencies, and personal contacts. Interested foster carers were directed to a registration form online with a link to the programme. Once authorised, trainees could complete all eight modules within twelve weeks of their start date. An introductory module explained the training and how to navigate progress. An independent trainer monitored trainees’ progress, evaluated their reflective assessments at the end of each module, and issued a CPD certificate to those that successfully completed their training. The trainer monitored “strugglers” and provided IT related support too. All trainees completed their training within the time frame. From those who had completed the training programme, 10 trainees were invited and agreed to take part in an evaluative interview.

Externally, 10 evaluators were sought through personal contacts. Before their interviews, the evaluators (with social work backgrounds) were asked to thoroughly navigate the training programme. Due to time restrictions, they were not requested to complete reflection/assessment related tasks; they were asked to spend some time reviewing the modules, content, resource library, and assessments for each module.

Following informed consent, trainees and evaluators were invited to either a phone call or video interview held on Microsoft Teams or Zoom. All participants consented for interviews to be recorded and deleted after transcription. During the interviews, trainees and evaluators were asked similar questions, mainly centred around the advantages and disadvantages of the “fostering in the digital age” training programme to the foster carer, while asking them for possible improvements.

The research process adhered to strict ethical guidelines, in line with GDPR, and received a favourable ethical opinion from Kingston University’s Ethics Committee. Participation was voluntary, confidential, and anonymous, with all identifying information removed during data analysis. Interviews were conducted online, audio recorded, and all recordings were checked and securely deleted following transcription. At the outset, the researcher explained the voluntary nature of participation and the right to withdraw at any point during the interview or within a reasonable period afterward (prior to data processing). Relevant contact details were provided for participants to communicate with the researcher, seek clarification on the university’s ethical standards, or raise complaints. The study was conducted in 2022/2023.

2.4. Data Analysis Technique

All interviews were transcribed and analysed qualitatively through Braun and Clarke’s (2006) guide to Thematic Analysis and using NVivo software (version 13). The evaluator first familiarised themselves with the data and then transcribed each interview before rereading the full dataset. NVivo software was then used to identify codes that related to the evaluation aims, e.g., strengths, limitations, or recommendations. The NVivo software aided the analysis process by storing the transcripts in one place and by automatically generating individual pages of codes with the associated quotations. Once initial codes had been identified, overarching themes and sub-themes were generated by sorting the codes into appropriate themes. Sub-themes represented separate related codes that constituted the overarching theme. Themes were then reviewed, refined, and defined; each theme is separate from the next and contributes to the wider evaluative narrative. Finally, themes and sub-themes were reported and written up in relation to the evaluation aims. Key quotes were identified as standalone extracts, while other smaller quotes were embedded within the analytic narrative. To check coding reliability and reduce potential bias, inter-coder reliability was established through a comparison of codes and themes generated by the authors and a fellow researcher from four participants. Although minor discrepancies were identified, there was agreement on approximately 80% of the codes and themes, demonstrating an appropriate level of consistency in the analysis.

3. Findings

This section presents the findings from the thematic analysis of foster carers’ and social workers’ reflections on the Fostering in a Digital Age training programme. Themes and subthemes were identified using Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-phase approach to thematic analysis. Following transcription and familiarisation, data were coded inductively, allowing patterns to emerge from the participants’ own words and experiences. Themes were chosen based on their frequency, relevance to the evaluation aims, and explanatory power, while subthemes captured nuances and variations within each core idea. The four overarching thematic axes were introduced to reflect participants’ perceptions and opinions of the programme’s importance to its effectiveness, challenges, and suggested improvements. These themes are relevance, benefits, limitations, and recommendations. In explaining the themes, the analysis also ensured a balanced inclusion of foster carers’ and social workers’ voices while highlighting the most illustrative quotations. SDT was applied throughout.

3.1. Relevance

Participants consistently emphasised the relevance of the programme, describing it as both timely and necessary within the current landscape of fostering and digital life. Foster carers and social workers alike acknowledged that online safety and digital literacy had been underrepresented in previous training, despite being integral to modern safeguarding.

3.1.1. Current Training Gaps

Both groups noted a longstanding gap in existing training provision. The programme was widely regarded as “really needed” [E2] and addressing a “nice niche” [T9] in foster carer education. Participants reflected that prior online safety content had been limited, fragmented, or embedded within broader safeguarding programmes rather than offered as a focused, specialised course. As one foster carer explained, “I don’t know that I have ever done a devoted course to online safety before this one. I think it’s always been part of a broader training.” [T1].

Social workers echoed these sentiments, suggesting that the lack of comprehensive digital training left many carers underprepared for the realities of CYP’s online worlds. They felt that online life, despite its clear importance, had not been treated with the same seriousness as other safeguarding domains. Many believed that digital competency should now be a standard requirement in foster carer training. This gap in training links closely to the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) component of competence. Participants described feeling ill-equipped to guide or protect CYP in digital spaces, and the training was perceived as filling that competency void—enhancing confidence and capability in managing online risks.

3.1.2. Digital Anxiety and Age

Another recurring theme related to foster carers’ digital anxiety and generational differences. Social workers described “lots of anxiety” [E2] surrounding technology and noted that for some carers, this discomfort “never really goes away” [E3]. Foster carers themselves acknowledged that they were “not digital natives” [T1] and sometimes found “the whole online world deeply mysterious” [T1]. One social worker explained, “They grew up at a time when this stuff wasn’t normal; it wasn’t part of their childhood.” [E5].

Several carers reflected that rapid technological change left them struggling to keep pace: “Tech is something that is advancing very quickly and changes very rapidly, so you feel like you can’t keep up.” [T7]. Some admitted that their own discomfort led them to avoid digital topics altogether. Social workers recognised this reluctance as a barrier, especially when carers’ confidence directly affects their ability to guide children online. Viewed through an SDT lens, these accounts illustrate tensions around autonomy and competence. Without a foundational sense of digital fluency, carers feel dependent on others for support. The programme offered a structured opportunity to build autonomy by demystifying technology and enabling carers to make informed, independent decisions about online engagement.

3.1.3. Understanding the Centrality of Digital Lives

Across interviews, participants highlighted the integral role that digital engagement plays in the everyday lives of CYP. For many CYP, being online is not optional—it is woven into their social, educational, and emotional development. One social worker noted, “When I hear carers say, ‘I wish we could not have the internet,’ we have to—we just do. It’s normal.” [E5]. Similarly, foster carers commented that “kids are online or on phones 24/7” [T10] and that understanding this world was “especially important for those fostering teens or pre-teens.” [T4].

Carers recognised the knowledge gap between themselves and the CYP they care for. They described feeling “like a dinosaur” [T10] compared to tech-savvy CYP, who “have different apps that carers might not even know about.” [T7]. This digital divide reinforced the need for structured learning that contextualises online life within safeguarding and child development frameworks.

This subtheme aligns strongly with SDT’s relatedness component, highlighting carers’ motivation to connect with CYP’s experiences. Understanding digital life was seen as not only a safety issue but also a means of strengthening relationships, trust, and mutual respect.

3.2. Benefits

Participants described numerous benefits of the Fostering in a Digital Age programme, particularly its accessibility, flexibility, and comprehensive approach. They emphasised the value of varied learning formats, practical tools, and its potential to enhance both personal confidence and professional practice.

3.2.1. Flexibility and Accessibility

The online, self-paced structure was widely praised. Carers appreciated being able to “do it in [their] own time” [E1], fitting the programme around their demanding schedules. Although some felt the content was lengthy, most viewed this as necessary to cover the topic in sufficient depth. As one carer explained, “It’s good for me that I’m able to do it in the evening or weekend.” [T9]. Flexibility was especially valued by those juggling employment and multiple placements. Social workers observed that this mode of delivery allowed for consistent engagement without disrupting family or work routines. Participants also highlighted the benefit of being able to revisit materials when needed, describing this as a sustainable, lifelong learning approach. This feature connects to SDT’s principle of autonomy: when carers have control over when and how they learn, they feel more invested and motivated to engage meaningfully with the content.

3.2.2. Engaging Design and Comprehensiveness

Participants found the platform to be “user-friendly” [E4] and “visually pleasing” [T6], appreciating the range of videos, images, and text that accommodated different learning styles. The inclusion of real-life examples and contributions from looked-after CYP was particularly praised: “The videos involving CYP were absolutely brilliant.” [E3]. The comprehensiveness of the programme was another noted strength. Trainees valued how it “doesn’t just talk about the risks, it also talks about the positives” [E1], creating a balanced view of digital life. As one foster carer observed, “People get locked up in the risks… but there are good things too.” [T4]. Although some participants admitted to feeling “overwhelmed by the amount of information” [T1], most felt the content was well-researched and informative, describing it as “fabulously well-documented and supported with materials.” [T1].

By equipping carers with both conceptual understanding and practical tools, the programme enhanced their confidence in addressing complex digital issues. This reflects SDT’s competence component—carers left feeling more capable of navigating the challenges of online safety.

3.3. Limitations

Despite the overwhelmingly positive feedback, participants also identified several limitations. These included technical and navigational challenges, content overload, and varying levels of engagement with reflective exercises.

3.3.1. Navigation and Technical Issues

While most users described the website as easy to use, some experienced confusion when tracking progress. One participant recalled, “At the very beginning, I went to move on and nothing saved… I didn’t realise there was a save button.” [T10]. This issue was compounded for those using mobile devices, who found certain functions difficult to locate. Although these difficulties were relatively minor, they caused frustration and occasionally disrupted learning flow. For less technologically confident carers, such issues risked discouraging continued participation. Ensuring smoother navigation and clearer prompts was seen as essential to maintaining engagement.

3.3.2. Cognitive Load and Engagement with Reflections

A foster carer described feeling “completely overwhelmed by the quantity of information” [T1]. The depth of content, while appreciated, sometimes made it challenging to retain key messages or differentiate between essential and supplementary material. Social workers suggested simplifying module hierarchies to make learning more intuitive. The reflection sections were generally viewed as valuable opportunities to consolidate learning: “It makes you sit and think about what you’ve just read or listened to and actually apply it.” [T10]. However, others noted potential uneven levels of participation, with some trainees offering minimal responses: “Some people will really think about it and reflect; some will just put ‘learned a lot.’” [E5]. From an SDT perspective, these findings highlight the importance of supportive structure. Overly dense material or unclear expectations can impede carers’ sense of competence and autonomy, whereas guided, reflective prompts help sustain intrinsic motivation and self-directed learning.

3.4. Recommendations

Participants provided clear and practical suggestions for improving the programme and broadening its reach. Their recommendations focused on greater integration with existing training structures, enhanced collaboration between social workers and carers, and increased accessibility for diverse learning needs.

3.4.1. Integration into Local Authority and Agency Training

Both groups suggested that the programme be embedded within local authority and agency training programmes to ensure consistency and recognition. Foster carers valued when it counted toward their mandatory training credits, with one explaining, “It gave us two credits towards that training.” [T4]. Social workers emphasised the importance of being “on the radar of local authorities” [E1] to encourage wider adoption. Integration would also signal that digital literacy is now considered a fundamental part of foster care training.

3.4.2. Collaboration Between Social Workers and Carers

Several participants recommended that social workers take part in the programme themselves, either as learners or facilitators. A foster carer explained, “Supervising social workers and managers should do the course as well.” [T3]. This joint approach was viewed as beneficial for consistency in advice and practice. Social workers also saw potential for closer collaboration, suggesting that foster carers’ progress could be shared with supervisors to monitor learning and offer targeted support. Such joint engagement could strengthen relationships and align understanding between foster carers and professionals. This recommendation resonates with SDT’s focus on relatedness, enhancing shared purpose and mutual support.

3.4.3. Accessibility and Future Programme Development

Participants suggested several ways to increase accessibility, such as offering different levels for varying digital skills, introducing text-to-speech functions, and ensuring materials could be edited or personalised. One social worker proposed including “a really basic guide for people on literally putting the computer on” [E4], while another highlighted the need for additional topics such as “safeguarding the foster carer” [E2] and “technology and disabilities” [T3]. Expanding the programme in these ways would help it reach carers across diverse backgrounds and abilities, reflecting an inclusive and responsive model of training.

3.4.4. Sustained Learning and Practical Implementation

A key strength identified was the “ability to return” [E7] to programme materials after completion. Foster carers described the resource library as “brilliant” [T10] and particularly valued its practical application: “It’s something I’d dip in and out of… if something happens, I can go back and have a look.” [T6]. These tools allowed carers to apply knowledge directly to their interactions with CYP, using conversation starters and “What if” cards to open discussions about online behaviour. The ongoing accessibility of materials made the programme a living resource rather than a one-time training. From an SDT standpoint, this continuity supports both autonomy and competence, encouraging carers to take ownership of their continued learning and apply insights in meaningful, real-world ways.

3.5. Summary and Group Differences

Overall, participants viewed the Fostering in a Digital Age training programme as highly relevant, comprehensive, and beneficial in enhancing foster carers’ digital confidence and safeguarding competence. Both social workers (evaluators) and foster carers (trainees) recognised the training’s importance, but their emphases differed across themes. Evaluators were particularly focused on the broader relevance of the programme and its alignment with safeguarding policy and practice standards. They tended to view the programme through a systemic lens, identifying how it could fill long-standing gaps in local authority training provision and improve overall digital literacy among foster carers. In contrast, trainees emphasised personal relevance, describing how the programme increased their understanding of CYP’s online lives and helped them manage anxiety around technology.

When reflecting on benefits, evaluators highlighted the programme’s structure, comprehensiveness, and potential as a scalable professional tool. Foster carers, meanwhile, valued its accessibility, relatable language, and the opportunity to engage with real-life examples and child perspectives. For foster carers, flexibility and practical application were key motivators, while evaluators often discussed the programme’s pedagogical value and potential to inform future practice frameworks.

Across the limitations, differences emerged in focus and tone. Evaluators concentrated on technical and design-related aspects such as module order, navigation, and cognitive load that might hinder broader rollout or consistency in delivery. Trainees, however, described more emotional and experiential barriers, including time pressures, digital anxiety, and occasional feelings of being overwhelmed by information.

In terms of recommendations, evaluators prioritised strategic integration of the programme into mandatory training programmes and emphasised closer collaboration between social workers and foster carers. Trainees offered more learner-centred suggestions, such as simplifying the programme hierarchy, improving mobile usability, and ensuring resources remain practical and easily adaptable.

Viewed collectively through the lens of Self-Determination Theory (SDT), evaluators’ perspectives reflect an emphasis on system-level competence and structure, whereas trainees’ reflections highlight individual autonomy, confidence, and relatedness in applying the training within their caregiving roles. Together, these complementary viewpoints demonstrate that fostering digital literacy in care settings requires both organisational support and individual empowerment.

4. Discussion

Fostering in the Digital Age is an accredited online training programme designed to improve foster carers’ awareness of online risks, harms, and benefits, with emphasis on online safety. To the researcher’s knowledge, this is the first of its kind. Informed by previous research and with TSD standards in mind (Department for Education 2012), this programme emphasised the importance of psychological and communication skills in foster care, attachment and trauma-informed care, challenging behaviours, emotional regulation, empathy, mental health challenges, and help seeking. This online programme, using a learning management system, allowed individual tracking, to facilitate targeted and direct support to foster carers when needed. Being online, the programme was also designed to reach foster carers, a ‘hard to reach’ population due to their workload and the nature of their role. With the advances in technology, it was anticipated that this programme would provide tailored knowledge, resources, convenience, and accessibility for foster carers to improve their engagement and participation. CPD accreditation and certification also added to the appeal.

The results of evaluation interviews with both foster carers and social workers revealed a clear conclusion: the programme was relevant to the needs of foster carers and provided them with a comprehensive understanding of digital lives while offering practical resources that could be implemented in the home. There were undoubtedly areas for improvement, namely the navigation of the programme and the presence of the ‘Mark to Complete’ button as a particular confusion. The long-term effects of the training cannot yet be established; foster carers who offered an evaluation interview had either only recently completed the programme or were still making progress towards completion. As such, trainees had little time to make any long-term changes into place. The following discussion focuses on the programme’s relevance, strengths, limitations, and useful recommendations to enhance its uptake and impact. It also focuses on how the programme supports foster carers sense of competence, autonomy, and relatedness, which are key drivers for motivation and sustained engagement (SDT; Deci and Ryan 2000).

4.1. How Relevant Is Fostering in the Digital Age?

The Fostering in a Digital Age programme was deemed highly relevant for foster carers, addressing a gap in training provision. Previous training did not appropriately cover the online lives of CYP, and there was no single dedicated training for this in the UK. The programme was identified as a niche in foster carer training; online safeguarding and digital lives are generally neglected in current training programmes. According to our trainees and social workers’ reports about pre-existing training, attention is given towards parental controls and settings, or they focus on singular examples of online risks, such as a short programme on cyberbullying or sexting. It is essential to provide foster carers with a holistic overview of digital lives, given the vulnerability of looked-after CYP online (El-Asam and Katz 2018). The programme achieves this by exploring both the benefits of being online and the many potential risks.

Participants highlighted several barriers to engaging with digital lives, including digital anxiety, age, and not being digital natives. Foster carers in particular reported challenges in understanding the digital worlds of CYP, though they recognised a strong sense of responsibility to safeguard them online. In the UK, around 65% of foster carers are aged over 50 (Department for Education 2022). This age profile, combined with limited training, may contribute to a digital divide. Older foster carers may find technology both challenging and anxiety-provoking, which can limit their ability to create and support a safe digital environment for the CYP in their care.

The perceived relevance of the training can be understood through SDT’s concept of competence, the fundamental need to feel capable and effective in one’s actions (Ryan and Deci 2000). By enhancing foster carers’ knowledge of online risks, safety, and the benefits of digital engagement through a structured and accredited programme, their sense of mastery may increase and digital anxiety may be reduced. This, in turn, can strengthen foster carers’ motivation to engage with digital issues rather than avoid them. In support of this, Livingstone et al. (2017), suggested parents’ confidence is a key determinant of proactive digital mediation, and the programme, in general, appears to improve this confidence for foster carers who may otherwise feel ill-equipped.

Additionally, the programme also focused on relatedness. By acknowledging that CYP’s online lives are fundamental to their social identity and development, it helped foster carers understand and empathise with those experiences and approach online safety or digital parenting in a relational, rather than punitive, way. Understanding relevance, therefore, meant not only understanding the “what” of online safety but also the “why”. The motivation behind certain online behaviour will facilitate better support.

4.2. What Are the Programme’s Perceived Benefits?

Many participants shared their opinions on the features and programme structure. One of the intended aims of the programme was its flexibility, something confirmed by the majority, who particularly enjoyed the online format and appreciated being able to “dip in and out” as needed, fitting learning around the busy lives of foster carers. However, this flexibility also meant that for some, the programme felt as though it took too long to complete. The programme offered 11 CPD hours, but some participants reported spending more time on it, as different users progressed at different paces. For some, it felt lengthy.

The programme was considered relatively easy to navigate, with the order and hierarchy of content praised, although some improvements were suggested. Participants found the role of “reflections” on case studies particularly useful, as these encouraged deeper thinking and engagement. The scenarios were relatable and thought-provoking, acknowledging that there is no single correct answer and that foster carers may tackle online challenges in different, yet equally appropriate and safe, ways.

The impact of the programme format was also noted. The use of a variety of resources, such as text- and video-based content, was seen as beneficial. It was also appreciated that the programme could be accessed through both computers and smartphones. Importantly, there was general agreement that the language used was user-friendly, accessible, and restorative, drawing on terminology familiar to foster carers and psychological concepts that were clear and easy to understand. The training programme was judged to be comprehensive, covering all elements of online safety. It was not limited to risks and harms but also highlighted the benefits, with a strong emphasis on the positive aspects of digital lives.

The overall flexibility of the programme and its online format meant that it was able to cater to the busy lives of foster carers. A systematic literature review previously identified foster carers as needing more real life and flexible training, with ‘real life’ here referring to interactions with experts and other foster carers, as well as discussions of real-life examples and scenarios (Cooley and Petren 2011; Kaasbøll et al. 2019). Flexible training in this review meant meeting the demands of foster carers’ busy lives, such as difficulties accessing in-person training due to lack of time or travel demands. In this study, the programme was accessible, easy to complete, and self-paced. Online training therefore offers a more viable option (Buzhardt and Heitzman-Powell 2006; Kaasbøll et al. 2019).

By applying SDT, the benefits of the training programme can be understood as primarily fulfilling the needs for autonomy and competence. Its flexible structure enabled caregivers to exercise control over their learning pace and timing, thereby enhancing autonomy in light of their busy lifestyles. Additionally, the reflective tasks and case scenarios promoted critical thinking and a sense of mastery, reinforcing their knowledge and competence. Autonomy- and competence-supportive contexts are known to improve intrinsic motivation, engagement, and well-being (Deci and Ryan 2000). Therefore, trainees’ ability to self-direct their learning is likely to promote deeper engagement and internalisation of learning goals.

4.3. What Are the Limitations?

Despite overwhelmingly positive feedback, participants identified several limitations, including navigation challenges, cognitive load, and varying engagement with reflective exercises. The programme offered trainees a comprehensive and holistic overview and was attractive and easy to navigate for most. However, for some trainees it was overwhelming; the layout and structuring of modules and topics needed to better clarify which information was foreground and which was additional. Resources could be better labelled as compulsory and supplementary. This could be performed with a colour scheme, wherein compulsory items are formatted with a green background and Supplementary Materials with an orange background. The lack of clarity as to which resources were essential or core to foster carer knowledge meant that some trainees spent more than double the expected time to complete the programme, as they thought that they needed to have read all the resources before completion.

There were some difficulties with the navigation of the programme, and this presented as a serious limitation that needs addressing in the future. The layout of the programme was to have ‘Back’ and ‘Next’ arrow buttons as a footer on the page, which allowed trainees to move between topics and modules. However, the ‘Mark to complete’ button in between these two arrows should have been used by trainees to save their progress on the programme and indicate their completion of a topic. This caused some confusion amongst trainees, as well as evaluators who reviewed the programme.

There is also room for improvement in the videos that were included in the programme. The more professional videos and those co-created with looked-after CYP were praised, while others were viewed as less engaging. Recommendations included introducing speakers, using animation, and adding subtitles to improve accessibility.

These barriers, as described by participants, represent limitations to the satisfaction of competence and autonomy. When trainees struggle to navigate the programme’s content or feel overwhelmed, their sense of control and mastery diminishes, potentially reducing intrinsic motivation to engage with the training and its learning outcomes (Reeve 2018). Clarifying expectations and simplifying navigation could help restore these needs, thereby enhancing engagement and satisfaction. Although the programme was rich in content and resources, this may have led to cognitive overload. Training should be sufficiently stimulating to promote learning and growth, yet not so demanding that it undermines confidence. Adjusting module depth and pacing could help balance the level of challenge, maintain high motivation, and reduce anxiety.

4.4. How Can the Programme Be Enhanced?

Participants provided a range of recommendations to enhance accessibility, impact, and long-term engagement. Both foster carers and social workers suggested embedding the programme within mandatory local authority training. Speaking of mandatory training, foster carers highlighted that the programme contributed towards required CPD hours, which increased motivation for enrolment. Social workers emphasised the importance of being on the “radar of local authorities” and integrating the programme into agency frameworks. This institutional embedding could initially enhance extrinsic motivation, but, as SDT proposes, external incentives can, over time, become internalised when learners perceive genuine value and relevance in the training (Ryan and Deci 2000).

Participants also suggested joint participation between foster carers and social workers. Several noted that social workers should complete the programme to ensure consistent understanding and provide better guidance. This supports the relatedness dimension of SDT, as shared training nurtures mutual respect, empathy, and cooperative problem-solving.

Participants recommended accessibility improvements such as adding subtitles, simplifying navigation, and developing modules for foster carers with limited digital literacy. For older foster carers in particular, a simplified or introductory digital skills module could reduce anxiety and facilitate participation. These adjustments can directly attend to trainees’ competence and autonomy by reducing digital barriers, which can allow foster carers to feel capable of engaging with the training programme on their own terms.

The sustained accessibility of the resource library was also widely praised. Carers valued being able to “go back and have a refresh,” viewing it as an ongoing tool for learning. This feature promotes autonomous motivation by enabling foster carers to engage willingly and frequently, supporting self-regulated professional growth. Finally, participants suggested adapting the programme for social workers and other professionals, and developing separate modules tailored to CYP’s age groups. These additions would enhance connections and collaborative learning, which in turn nurture a sense of relatedness across professional networks and between adults and CYP.

4.5. Conclusions, Implications and Research Limitations

To conclude, this evaluation suggests that Fostering in a Digital Age effectively addressed a critical training gap for foster carers; traditional training does not fully account for digital lives and safety strategies. By enhancing their competence, autonomy, and relatedness in navigating CYP’s digital lives. Grounded in the principles of Self-Determination Theory, the programme not only built foster carers’ confidence and practical skills but also encouraged empathy, collaboration, and open communication. These are critical factors for promoting safe, supportive, and trusting relationships with CYP. By framing digital safeguarding as a shared, relational process rather than a purely technical task, the training fostered motivation that is likely to sustain beyond programme completion. The positive reception from both foster carers and social workers further highlights the programme’s adaptability and relevance across professional roles. Future developments should continue to refine accessibility, strengthen the integration of theoretical and reflective learning, and evaluate the long-term outcomes of this autonomy-supportive and relationship-centred approach to foster carer education.

In this evaluation, modules’ content, interface, and navigation were perceived as advantageous to the majority but challenging to some. Having an online platform, and using an online learning management system, means many of those challenges/limitations can be easily modified or overcome promptly and efficiently. This evaluation provides a learning experience for policymakers, local authorities, and practitioners on how to reach and train foster carers on CYP digital lives while promoting safer internet use. Overall, online training provides many advantages: accessibility, flexibility, cost-effectiveness, adaptability, and scalability. Such advantages must be considered in professional online safety training.

In the UK, social services, including social work and foster care, are facing significant financial pressures. Demand for foster carers is rising, yet budgets for continuing professional development (CPD) remain limited, and training has traditionally been delivered face-to-face. The accessibility of the internet presents an opportunity to reach foster carers more effectively, providing training and upskilling them in online safety. At present, online safety is often a minor component of mandatory safeguarding training, typically focusing on online child sexual exploitation. However, as this report and previous research indicate, digital risks are diverse and increasing. A broader and theoretically driven approach is needed, one that moves beyond a narrow, risk-focused perspective to address the full spectrum of online opportunities, challenges, and underlying psychological motivations and vulnerabilities. Foster carers must balance their safeguarding responsibilities with recognition of the benefits of digital life. Online engagement can foster friendships, social connections, learning, entertainment, and coping strategies. Emerging technologies, including artificial intelligence (AI), further expand these opportunities. Hence, appropriately supporting looked-after CYP online is essential to ensuring safer, healthier digital engagement, while also maintaining offline interactions and human connections. Physical and psychological well-being must remain central.

This study illustrates how digital technology and online learning management systems can be utilised effectively. However, it has several limitations. Although the sample size was adequate for a qualitative study, the findings are limited in terms of generalisability. The evaluative nature of the interview questions may also have constrained the depth of responses. While this study and the training programme were informed by consultations with foster carers and looked-after CYP (El-Asam et al. 2021a, 2021b), the programme still needs to be tested quantitatively, longitudinally and extended to a larger, more representative sample of foster carers. This will enhance generalisability and strengthen objectivity. This training was child-centric and aligned with TSD standards. It also applied SDT principles throughout its design and delivery; however, the usefulness of this theoretical approach warrants further exploration.

This evaluative study was conducted shortly after the rapid rise in generative artificial intelligence technologies (e.g., ChatGPT [GPT-3.5] OpenAI, 2022). Although the programme referenced AI, it was not a prominent focus. In the past three years, AI has significantly reshaped the ways in which CYP interact with digital devices, offering new opportunities for learning, socialising, and support. At the same time, AI presents risks, including the spread of misinformation, the generation of inappropriate content, and the potential for over-reliance on technology. Future programmes and research should place greater emphasis on AI, including policies and safeguarding measures, as central components of improving online safety practices among parents and foster carers. Research should build on the insights gained from this study to further enhance online safety for foster carers and social services more broadly. Tailored support and programmes should be prioritised over one-size fits all approaches.