A Tool for Examining the Role of Social Context: Cross-National Validation of the Impostor Phenomenon Short Scale (IPSS-3)

Abstract

Despite decades of research, major gaps remain in understanding the Impostor Phenomenon (IP), particularly regarding its social stratification and structural implications. While traditionally viewed through a merely psychological lens, the IP is increasingly recognized as being shaped by broader contexts such as structural inequalities and discrimination. This study aims to provide a concise, cross-nationally validated instrument for measuring IP feelings in large-scale surveys. We validate the Impostor Phenomenon Short Scale (IPSS-3), a brief self-report instrument suitable for surveys with limited assessment time. Using data from 424 German- and 477 Hebrew-speaking adolescents and young adults (aged 16–28), the factor structure, internal consistency, and construct validity of the IPSS-3 are examined via its correlations with the external locus of control and self-esteem. These analyses confirm high reliability and consistent validity across both samples. The IPSS-3 enables researchers to explore the intersection of IP-related self-doubt and perceived lack of belonging with opportunities for social participation, workplace belonging, career development, and social mobility. By providing a reliable and efficient measure of the IP, this study promotes interdisciplinary research on the IP and enhances a nuanced understanding of how subjective self-perceptions intersect with structural opportunities and social stratification.

1. Introduction

The Impostor Phenomenon (IP) represents a popular research topic that is addressed in various academic disciplines and assessed empirically among diverse study populations. For example, a recent systematic review by Bravata et al. (2019) shows that it has been studied among clinical nurse specialists, managers of various industries, and African-American college students. Apart from this, in their recent bibliometric analysis Stone-Sabali et al. (2023) described the evolution of IP research and identified five research clusters based on 399 academic articles: Since first being described in 1978 by psychologists Clance and Imes (1978), research on the IP has predominantly focused on (1) construct development and possible gender effects, IP’s relation to (2) self-esteem and racial identity, (3) career and organizational psychology, (4) sense of belonging, and (5) negative effects on individuals. Additionally, a recent systematic review by Gullifor et al. (2024) emphasized the organizational relevance of the IP, identifying its antecedents, correlates, and consequences in professional contexts.

While this suggests a wide range of research, a closer look at the theoretical approaches indicates a strong need to contextualize the IP, as emphasized by Feenstra et al. (2020). This is the case as the IP is predominantly understood as a troubling, individual constraint that should be overcome through self-help strategies or therapy (Feenstra et al. 2020). In light of this, it is striking that there are significant open questions in empirical IP research, e.g., when it comes to age effects or systematic variations in IP intensity among different social groups. This is partly the case since instruments for measuring the IP are usually age- or context-specific, while attempts to standardize IP assessments have typically included small numbers of ethnic minorities (Mak et al. 2019).

This study encourages context-related research endeavors by introducing the Impostor Phenomenon Short Scale (IPSS-3; Jansen 2024b) and highlighting its value for cross-national empirical social research, e.g., in the domains of education and inequality, occupational research, or studies of well-being. To this end, a profound analysis of the psychometric properties of the IPSS-3 as a novel measure for capturing IP sentiments in large-scale and longitudinal surveys is provided. Specifically, two independent datasets collected in Germany (N = 424) and Israel (N = 447) are employed to conduct a two-step factor analytic strategy, combining exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). This procedure ensures that the stepwise translation of the scale from German into English and subsequently into Hebrew does not alter the underlying latent structure. Moreover, the objectivity, reliability, validity, and cross-national effectiveness of the IPSS-3 are assessed.

In light of almost fifty years of intensive but largely one-sided research, this study is motivated by gaining a more nuanced understanding of the IP as a social phenomenon and assessing the context-independent utility of the IPSS-3 as a short instrument of particular relevance to such research endeavors. Considering that Clance et al. (1995) suggested that the IP is shaped by “interpersonal and social contexts” (80), while Feenstra et al. (2020) made a strong call to contextualize the IP, a cross-nationally validated IP short scale is crucial to paving the way for new avenues in IP research.

To this end, the study is structured as follows: First, a brief description of the IP is provided, focusing on its central characteristics and recent research findings. Second, a brief review of the current state of empirical IP research is presented, followed by an overview of IP instruments. Third, the development and cross-national validation of the IPSS-3 is described, followed by an introduction to the data, methods, and analytical strategy of this study. Fourth, the functioning and validity of the IPSS-3 are tested for both the German and the Hebrew samples before the results are assessed in terms of their quality and limitations. Finally, recommendations for the application of the IPSS-3 and future research from a social science perspective are provided.

1.1. Impostor Phenomenon

The IP was first identified in 1978 among high-achieving women and describes persistent self-doubt and feelings of not belonging that are particularly relevant in educational and professional contexts (Clance and Imes 1978). The IP refers to feelings of “inauthentic success” and “intellectual fraudulence” and occurs at different levels, namely, constant doubts about one’s own abilities, fears of being exposed (as an impostor), and sentiments of not belonging (Levesque 2018). The IP is based on the observation that individuals feel intellectually inadequate despite objective proof of their competence and success (Bradley 1978). This is linked to a tendency to attribute achievements to external, unstable factors (e.g., good social contacts, luck, or chance) rather than to internal, stable abilities (Ross et al. 2001; Bernard et al. 2018).

While the IP was initially framed as a gendered experience, exclusively affecting women, growing evidence reveals its occurrence among other historically disadvantaged social groups, particularly ethnic minorities and individuals from low social backgrounds (e.g., Cokley et al. 2015; Bernard et al. 2017). Nonetheless, a recent meta-analytic review covering 115 studies with a total sample of 42,018 respondents revealed that women, on average, score higher in IP intensity than men, while differences in effect sizes are rather small to moderate (Price et al. 2024). Although the authors state that there might be situations in which differences based on gender are very small, they underline that such situations are exceptions rather than the rule (Price et al. 2024, p. 8). From a social science point of view, this finding is interesting, as on the one hand, it indicates that social contexts (situations) seem to play a central role, while on the other hand, it is reasonable to assume that other socio-demographic factors besides gender might be relevant as well.

To date, a wealth of research has been published on the IP, highlighting its devastating psychological effects, e.g., in relation to anxiety, depression, and self-esteem (e.g., Sonnak and Towell 2001; McGregor et al. 2008). For example, empirical studies in management contexts highlight the salience of the IP in shaping career trajectories and well-being. For instance, Pervez et al. (2021) document its links to mental health in doctoral programs, while Forson et al. (2025) show how organizational diversity practices and female role models can moderate IP experiences in the hospitality sector. This body of literature provides a comprehensive account of the detrimental consequences of the IP on individuals’ well-being and career advancements (also see Vergauwe et al. 2015; Neureiter and Traut-Mattausch 2016; Noskeau et al. 2021). This demonstrates that it is essential to better understand the role of contextual factors, precisely because the IP is gaining increasing attention in academia, not only as a generally attractive research topic but also as a concern that particularly affects members of disadvantaged social groups (e.g., Cokley et al. 2024).

Overall, the IP is subject to extensive debates in both academic and popular literature, where it is met with a flurry of interest that makes it an ever-popular topic (Cozzarelli and Major 1990, p. 401; Anderson-Zorn 2021). Yet to date, most studies apply a rather narrow focus on personality-based factors and use an individualizing approach that risks missing important parts of the picture (Feenstra et al. 2020). Moreover, the IP has so far been assessed almost exclusively based on small-scale surveys, usually covering highly selective university student samples (Bravata et al. 2019).

In early 2024, Leonard I. Pearlin Award-winning Professor Jo Phelan from Columbia University published a study focusing on the role of the IP in academia and its functioning as a mechanism reinforcing the reproduction of social class based on her personal experience and data from a sample of over 2000 university students (Phelan 2024). As highlighted by the American Sociological Association (ASA), Phelan examines the IP “as something borne of sociological processes as opposed to the result of individual shortcomings” (American Sociological Association 2024). Among the many existing articles on the IP, this study is special in two respects—in terms of sample size and theoretical approach—yet of course not without its own limitations: Phelan (2024) exclusively analyses college students, who were recruited via a non-probability panel, and measures IP intensity using highly obvious items (e.g., “I have felt like an impostor at my college”). This is problematic in the sense that it risks documenting knowledge of the IP (and possibly related representation styles) rather than actual IP experiences, while the findings cannot be generalized. Nevertheless, Phelan (2024) significantly contributes to a social science perspective on the IP, providing helpful guidance for future research.

1.2. A Social Science Perspective on the IP

Situating the IP within broader theories of the social sciences can emphasize its social embeddedness rather than treating it as a purely individual disposition. Three perspectives are particularly instructive in this regard: Bourdieu’s concept of symbolic violence (Bourdieu and Passeron 1977), Goffman’s notion of stigma internalization (Goffman 1963), and the framework of intersectionality (Combahee River Collective 1977; Crenshaw 1989).

According to Bourdieu’s concept of symbolic violence (Bourdieu and Passeron 1977), dominant cultural norms are often mistakenly perceived as natural. This misrecognition causes individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds to view their own characteristics as inadequate rather than recognizing the social boundaries that trigger these feelings. In educational and professional contexts, this misrecognition can lead to persistent self-doubt and feelings of inadequacy despite objective evidence of competence and success (Jansen 2024a). These dynamics resonate with Goffman’s (1963) theorization of social stigma, which emphasizes how social labeling and stereotyping generate internalized self-devaluation. From this perspective, IP experiences represent the internalization of negative social expectations, which is particularly salient when individuals’ identities are implicitly devalued. These dynamics are linked to concrete social experiences, such as subtle exclusion in academic settings, stereotype-based questioning of competence, or limited recognition of achievements.

Intersectionality enriches this framework further by showing how different forms of disadvantage, such as gender, immigrant background, and socioeconomic status, intersect to create unique vulnerabilities (Combahee River Collective 1977; Crenshaw 1989). Existing IP research supports this perspective, demonstrating that women, individuals from racial and ethnic minorities, and first-generation college students frequently experience heightened IP (e.g., Cokley et al. 2015; Price et al. 2024). Intersectionality suggests that these dimensions of inequality are mutually constitutive, not merely additive, shaping unique patterns of exclusion and self-doubt.

Together, these perspectives position the IP as a socially structured experience rather than as a sole manifestation of individual psychological distress. Symbolic violence explains misrecognition processes, stigma internalization highlights the role of labeling and self-perceptions, and intersectionality shows their compound effects. This theoretical grounding emphasizes that an instrument that measures individual IP perceptions in large-scale, longitudinal surveys can help identify how broader social hierarchies are reproduced in subjective IP experiences. Embedding the IP in relation to symbolic violence, social stigma, and intersectionality while analyzing broad data allows for highlighting how access to cultural capital, exposure to social devaluation, and intersecting social identities influence IP experiences. This approach can address key open questions in IP research and create opportunities for innovative investigations with a strengthened interpretive scope from a social science perspective.

1.3. Conceptual and Empirical Gaps in IP Research

A critical look at the existing evidence base reveals significant shortcomings in empirical IP research.

First, recent reviews by Bravata et al. (2019) and Mak et al. (2019) have shown that the majority of IP studies are based on comparably small and highly selective samples. This is problematic as such data do not allow for general conclusions. Furthermore, these reviews demonstrate that IP research predominantly relies on cross-sectional data, with a few notable exceptions (e.g., September et al. 2001; Bouffard et al. 2011; Houseknecht et al. 2019). This limits chances to grasp potential variations in IP intensity over the lifespan. However, addressing such questions is of significant relevance for understanding the social origin and genesis of the IP as well as its societal role.

A second shortcoming can be seen in the fact that existing studies have large gaps when it comes to the specification of key demographic characteristics, e.g., age or ethnic background (Mak et al. 2019). This is problematic because it leads to contradictory findings since the results of different studies are not fully comparable. There are also only a few opportunities to link the findings of different studies using meta-analysis.

A third shortcoming in empirical IP research is connected to the lack of conceptual clarity and dimensionality. Given that the IP was originally conceptualized as a multidimensional phenomenon in the pioneer study by Clance and Imes (1978), initial instruments were designed accordingly, i.e., with a multidimensional factor structure to capture separate subscales (e.g., Fake, Luck, Discount). However, empirical research showed that this theoretically proposed factor structure was not reproducible using most IP instruments, which is why it has become a common practice to calculate overall sum scores, rather than subscale scores, regardless of the original instrument design (Mak et al. 2019). According to Mak et al. (2019), conceptual clarity is further confounded by the fact that most IP studies are not informative in this regard, due to an absence of appropriate reporting.

A final shortcoming relates to the shortage of longitudinal assessments in IP intensity already mentioned above. While some studies cover more than one measurement point, no profound analyses of the development of the IP over the life course exist. This is the case since the few existing longitudinal studies focus on a single and quite exceptional point in life, namely, university studies, while they cover a maximum of three waves of data collection in rather short succession.

In a nutshell, the shortcomings outlined above explain why highly relevant questions in IP research remain unanswered despite almost five decades of extensive academic engagement. Due to small and selective samples, questions concerning the role of socio-demographic characteristics in experiencing the IP remain unresolved (Bravata et al. 2019). This relates, e.g., to the role of age, which constitutes a fundamental demographic feature and, as such, represents a matter of particular importance when trying to contextualize the IP. While some studies indicate that age may predict IP intensity (e.g., Ibrahim et al. 2022), Bravata et al. (2019) highlight that a lot of IP studies do not report on this very basic demographic feature. Hence, even the role of age as a very basic socio-demographic characteristic remains open.

This study examines the suitability of the IPSS-3 as a novel IP instrument for empirical investigations in different national contexts, namely, in Germany and Israel, where prior research highlighted the relevance of the IP (e.g., Rohrmann et al. 2016; Neureiter and Traut-Mattausch 2016; Hochman et al. 2022; Yaffe 2022), while to date, no large-scale investigations exist.

Given that Germany and Israel share parallels in terms of changing social structures since the 1970s when the IP was first described, these countries offer suitable contexts for a comparison that allow for analyzing the applicability of the IPSS-3. Both countries have seen an increase in female employment and a reduction in educational inequalities in light of educational expansion and have been shaped by different immigration dynamics (Semyonov and Lewin-Epstein 2004; Gabay-Egozi and Yaish 2021; Grunow and Khoudja 2024). These parallels show that examining the IP in both countries can contribute to contextualizing it. Based on this rationale, the following section discusses to what extent current vacancies in IP research are related to the absence of a suitable instrument for large-scale data collection.

1.4. Instruments for Measuring the IP

There are various instruments available for studying the IP among different target groups. At the international level, four instruments are well-established, namely, the Harvey Impostor Scale (HIPS; Harvey 1981), which contains 14 items, the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS; Clance 1985), containing 20 items, the Perceived Fraudulence Scale (PFS; Kolligian and Sternberg 1991), with 51 items, and the Leary Impostorism Scale (LIS; Leary et al. 2000), which includes seven items.

In addition, there are two IP scales of particular relevance that have been developed for use among children and adolescents, namely, the Young Impostor Scale (YIS, Villwock et al. 2016), with eight items, and the questionnaire du sentiment d’imposture pour enfants et adolescents (QSIEA—Impostor Feelings Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents, Bouffard et al. 2011), which includes eight items as well.

Mak et al. (2019) provide a comprehensive overview of existing scales and highlight that these are utilized for data collection in various disciplines, e.g., in the fields of education, work studies, or organizational research, as well as in clinical contexts. Due to the shortcomings in adequate usage and reporting highlighted in the review of Mak et al. (2019), which are summarized in the previous section, it could be promising to compare the validity of different IP scales in search of a “gold” standard. However, due to their selective design, exhaustiveness (in terms of item numbers), and the mostly age- or context-specific nature of existing IP instruments, they barely allow for their application in large-scale or longitudinal surveys. This is the case as such surveys usually target diverse study populations and cover instruments for a wide range of concepts.

1.5. The Impostor Phenomenon Short Scale—IPSS-3

The Impostor Phenomenon Short Scale (IPSS-3, Jansen 2024b) was developed and validated to provide a universally applicable IP short instrument. The IPSS-3 is based on the first genuine German IP scale, namely, the Impostor Self-Concept Questionnaire (Impostor-Selbstkonzept-Fragebogen ISF/ISCQ; Rohrmann et al. 2020). To develop the IPSS-3, the items of a preliminary 5-item version of the ISCQ were linguistically modified following recommendations for question wording in large-scale and longitudinal surveys (Lenzner and Menold 2016). Following this, two studies were conducted to (1) further reduce the number of items and (2) evaluate differences in the measurement quality between the original and the simplified item formulations, while an additional (3) study was conducted to highlight potential applications of the IPSS-3 in wider social research. A central argument for applying the IPSS-3 instead of other instruments is its particularly time-efficient manner, since it can be anticipated that completing the IPSS-3 requires, on average, around one minute (Jansen 2024b). Moreover, the response time is likely to be further reduced in follow-up data collection due to learning effects without adverse effects on data quality (Kartsounidou et al. 2024). All steps related to the development and initial validation of the IPSS-3, including the original quality criteria, are reported in detail in the original validation study (Jansen 2024b).

1.6. This Study: Cross-National Validation of the IPSS-3

The IPSS-3 was applied in coordinated data collections in Germany and Israel to test the cross-national suitability of this novel instrument based on primary data.

Table 1. Items of the IPSS-3 in German, Hebrew, and English.

	German	Hebrew	English
Item 1	Obwohl ich oft erfolgreich bin, habe ich bei jeder Anforderung erneut Angst zu versagen	למרות שבדרך כלל אני מוצלח, אני חושש להיכשל שוב בכל בקשה.	Though I am often successful, I become afraid of failing again at every request.
Item 2	Manchmal befürchte ich, dass andere merken, wie viel Wissen und Fähigkeiten mir in Wirklichkeit fehlen	לעיתים אני פוחד שאחרים ישימו לב כמה ידע וכישורים באמת חסרים לי.	Sometimes I fear others will notice how much knowledge and how many skills I actually lack.
Item 3	Ich befürchte oft, die Erwartungen anderer nicht erfüllen zu können, auch wenn ich bereits viel erreicht habe.	לעיתים קרובות אני פוחד שלא אוכל לעמוד בציפיות של אחרים, למרות שעד כה הגעתי .להישגים רבים	I often fear not being able to meet the expectations of others, even though I have already achieved a lot.

Note. Fully labeled response categories in English (German, Hebrew): (1) does not apply at all (trifft überhaupt nicht zu, לא נכון בכלל); (2) mostly does not apply (trifft größtenteils nicht zu, לרוב לא נכון); (3) does not really apply (trifft kaum zu, לא ממש נכון); (4) applies a bit (trifft ein wenig zu, נכון במעט); (5) mostly applies (trifft größtenteils zu, לרוב נכון); (6) absolutely applies (trifft voll und ganz zu, נכון לחלוטין).

lists the items of the IPSS-3 in German, Hebrew, and English. The original German-language items were translated into English by a professional translation service for academic writing and subsequently translated into and verified in Hebrew by two independent mother-tongue academics employed in the field of higher education in Israel. Ultimately, a third Hebrew native speaker with expertise in translation and an interviewer from an Israeli panel provider verified the accuracy of the Hebrew translation. Concurrently, the English translation was evaluated as suitable by several English-speaking academics.

Given that the German version of the IPSS-3 has already been validated (Jansen 2024b), this study focuses on comparing the quality characteristics of the scale based on data collected in Israel. The objective is to demonstrate the cross-national applicability of the IPSS-3 and evaluate to what extent it can be recommended for broader implementation in empirical social science research.

2. Materials and Methods

The data were collected via online surveys in German for the German sample and in Hebrew for the Israeli sample. The questionnaires comprised scales for psychological, identity, social, and political attributes as well as variables covering socio-structural characteristics (e.g., gender, age, education, immigration origin) and two instruments for validating the IPSS-3.

2.1. Sample

Table 2. Sample characteristics by nation.

	Germany	Israel
N	424	447
Mean age in years (SD) [Range]	17.96 (0.91) [15–19]	21.56 (4.54) [16–29]
Proportion of females (%)	75.36	47.87
Educational level (%)
primary education or lower	0.24	8.28
secondary education	64.69	74.05
other	35.07	17.67
Native-born (%)	94.79	97.32

Note. Original educational levels were as follows: Germany = Sonder-/Förderschule, Hauptschule, Realschule, Haupt/Realschule, Kooperative Gesamtschule, Integrative Gesamtschule, Gymnasium, Berufliche Schule, andere, kein Schulbesuch; Israel = elementary education, secondary education, high school education without a high school diploma, high school diploma, first academic degree (undergraduate), second academic degree (graduate).

provides the sample’s characteristics by nation. The German sample was recruited by the online panel provider respondi/bilendi (2024) in February 2023 and consists of N = 424 adolescents living in Germany. The German respondents had an average age of 17 years (age range of 15 to 19 years), were predominantly female (75%), and were predominantly born in Germany (94%).

The Israeli sample was recruited by the online panel provider ipanel (2024) in February 2024 and consists of N = 447 Hebrew-speaking adolescents and young adults living in Israel. Due to the massacre committed by Hamas on 7 October 2023 and the subsequent war, the primary data collection in Israel was carried out during a comparatively quiet phase of the hostilities.

The resulting Israeli sample is almost balanced in terms of gender (47% female), while the respondents had an average age of 21 years (age range of 16 to 29 years) and reside in all seven Israeli districts, providing an almost representative reflection of Israel’s Jewish community. However, since both samples are based on online panels, there is high potential for sampling biases, i.e., self-selectivity and a clear lack of representativeness that limits the generalizability of findings.

2.2. Instruments

The IPSS-3 was utilized with two scales capturing constructs that are commonly considered to correlate with the IP, namely, (1) external locus of control (e.g., Clance and Imes 1978, p. 242; Byrnes and Lester 1995; Rohrmann et al. 2016) and (2) self-esteem (e.g., Oriel et al. 2004; Neureiter and Traut-Mattausch 2016; Cokley et al. 2018; Naser et al. 2022).

To assess external locus of control beliefs, the two items for external control beliefs of the Internal–External Control Beliefs Short Scale (IE-4; Kovaleva 2012) were used. As individuals with the IP are commonly assumed to attribute control externally, a convergent (positive) correlation of this scale with the IPSS-3 was expected. As the subscale comprised only two items, reliability was evaluated through the inter-item correlation. This was rather low (Germany: r = 0.24, p < 0.01; Israel: r = 0.34, p < 0.01), which is potentially partly due to the rather low statistical power resulting from the comparably restricted sample sizes.

To assess self-esteem, the Brief Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (BRS-5; Monteiro et al. 2022) was applied as a second validation scale. The BRS-5 comprises five items that were expected to discriminantly (negatively) correlate with the IPSS-3. The scale demonstrated good internal consistency in our samples (Germany: α = 0.88, Ω = 0.88; Israel: α = 0.82, Ω = 0.82).

The IPSS-3 was administered at the outset, while the two validation instruments were employed at a later point in the questionnaires. Positioning the IPSS-3 at the beginning of the survey was motivated by the fact that such placement can provide better data quality (Neuert 2024). To ensure the internal consistency of the questionnaire and optimize the survey flow for respondents, all scales were administered using the same fully labelled response format ranging from 1 “not agree at all” to 6 “absolutely agree”.

2.3. Analysis

To examine the Hebrew-language adaptation of the IPSS-3 and investigate its comparability with the German-language version, the reliability and validity of both scale versions were analyzed using the statistical software Stata, version 1.6, and the omega-coefficient ado.

3. Results

In the first step, descriptive statistics were analyzed separately for the German- and Hebrew-language versions of the IPSS-3, followed by an evaluation of the scales’ objectivity, reliability, and validity.

3.1. Descriptive Statistics

A comparison of the mean and median values by nation and gender provided in

Table 3. Descriptive statistics, by nation and gender.

	Mean	Median	Std. Dev.	Skewness	Kurtosis
Germany
Male	10.26	10	3.30	0.25	2.64
Female	12.55	13	3.28	−0.42	2.98
Israel
Male	10.24	11	3.61	−0.18	2.51
Female	11.68	12	3.67	−0.47	2.68

Note. The rating scale ranged from 1 (low) to 6 (high). Germany: N = 424 (75.36% female), Israel: N = 447 (47.87% female).

suggests that the IPSS-3 captures IP feelings accurately in all subgroups, as the distributions are quite similar for the same gender, while differences between genders are comparable for both nations. The slightly lower values in the Israeli sample may be caused by the slightly older age group, as there are indications that the IP might be reduced with age (Bravata et al. 2019).

3.2. Reliability

In both samples, the IPSS-3 revealed acceptable reliability scores based on Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega (Germany: α = 0.74; Ω = 0.76; Israel: α = 0.81; Ω = 0.81), which were slightly higher in the Israeli sample than in the German sample, as

Table 4. Reliability, exploratory factor structure, and eigenvalues of the IPSS-3, by nation.

	Cronbach’s Alpha	McDonald’s Omega	Retained Factor Structure	Eigen-Value	Rotated Factor Structure
Germany	0.75	0.77	1	2.0	1
Israel	0.81	0.82	1	2.2	1

Note. Germany: N = 424, Israel: N = 447.

shows. As is often the case with (ultra-) short scales, the reliability scores are lower than ideally desirable; however, both reliability estimates can be regarded as satisfactory and sufficient for social science research in light of the small number of items (Aiken and Groth-Marnat 2006; Kemper et al. 2019).

For both versions, high loadings on a single factor support a unidimensional factor structure that reflects those of the original validation study (Jansen 2024b) as well as those of the 15-item ISCQ (Rohrmann et al. 2020). The factor loadings for EFA and CFA, as well as the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) values provided in

Table 5. Exploratory factor loadings, unique variances, and KMO values of the IPSS-3 items, by nation.

Items	Factor 1 Loadings	Uniqueness	KMO Values
Germany			0.66
Item 1g	0.84	0.29	0.64
Item 2g	0.75	0.44	0.77
Item 3g	0.86	0.26	0.63
Israel			0.71
Item 1i	0.84	0.28	0.71
Item 2i	0.83	0.31	0.74
Item 3i	0.88	0.22	0.67

Note. Germany: N = 424, Israel: N = 447.

and

Table 6. Confirmatory factor analyses of the IPSS-3, by nation.

Nation	χ2(df)	CFI	TLI	RMSEA [90% CI]	SRMR	Standardized Factor Loadings
Germany	0.00 (0)	1.00	1.00	0.00 [0.00–0.00]	0.00	0.75–0.86
Israel	0.00 (0)	1.00	1.00	0.00 [0.00–0.00]	0.00	0.83–0.88

Note. Germany: N = 424, Israel: N = 447.

, confirm the suitability of the items for factor analysis, while the rotated factor structure provides further support for the IPSS-3’s unidimensional factor structure.

Detailed CFA results are provided in Table 6. As both models are just-identified (df = 0), global fit indices are necessarily perfect and thus uninformative. Therefore, the evaluation relies on the standardized factor loadings, which were consistently high (0.75–0.86 in Germany; 0.83–0.88 in Israel) and statistically significant (p < 0.01). These results provide clear support for the unidimensional structure of the IPSS-3 across both language versions.

Table A1. Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses testing measurement invariance across German and Israeli samples.

Model	χ2(df), p	CFI	TLI	RMSEA [90% CI]	SRMR	Δ CFI	Δ RMSEA
Configural	2.65 (4), 0.62	1.00	1.00	0.00 [0.00–0.06]	0.03	-	-
Metric	2.65 (3), 0.45	1.00	1.00	0.00 [0.00–0.08]	0.03	0.00	0.00

Note. Germany: N = 424, Israel: N = 447. Configural model: Loadings and intercepts free; metric model: Loadings constrained across groups.

in the Appendix A presents additional findings from a multigroup CFA conducted on the German and Israeli samples. Both the configural and metric models show an excellent fit (CFI = 1.00, TLI ≥ 1.00, RMSEA = 0.00, SRMR = 0.03), which remains unchanged when constraining loadings across groups (ΔCFI = 0.00, ΔRMSEA = 0.00). This indicates that the factor structure is measurement-invariant across groups, supporting the replicability of the scale in both versions. For additional transparency, a correlation matrix of all items is reported in

Table A2. Correlation matrix between the IPSS-3 items.

Items
Germany	Item 1g	Item 2g
Item 2g	0.53	-
Item 3g	0.63	0.46
Israel	Item 1i	Item 2i
Item 2i	0.42	-
Item 3i	0.61	0.60

Note. Germany: N = 424, Israel: N = 447. All correlations are statistically significant at p < 0.01.

.

3.3. Validity

The original validation study of the 15-item ISCQ (Rohrmann et al. 2020) and the IPSS-3 (Jansen 2024b) underscored the content-related validity of the original scale and its short version as well as high correlations with other established IP measures.

In addition, the correlations of the IPSS-3 with the BRS-5 and the IE-4 External provided in

Table 7. Correlations of the IPSS-3 with validation measures, by nation.

	Germany			Israel
	r	p > |z|	95% CI	r	p > |z|	95% CI
BRS-5 Brief Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale	−0.48	0.00	[−0.58, −0.37]	−0.45	0.00	[−0.53, −0.37]
IE-4 External Internal–External Control Beliefs Short Scale	0.33	0.00	[0.20, 0.45]	0.29	0.00	[0.19, 0.38]

Note. Germany: N = 424, Israel: N = 447.

underline that the IPSS-3 can accurately capture IP sentiments regardless of language, script, and regional context. Consistently highly statistically significant negative correlations with BRS-5 (Germany: r = −0.47, CI95%: −0.58 < r < −0.37; Israel: r = −0.45, CI95%: −0.53 < r < −0.37) reflect the findings of numerous other IP studies (e.g., Neureiter and Traut-Mattausch 2016; Cokley et al. 2018; Naser et al. 2022).

Moreover, the consistently statistically significant positive correlations with the IE-4 External (Germany: r = 0.32, CI95%: 0.20 < r < 0.45; Israel: r = 0.28, CI95%: 0.19 < r < 0.38) demonstrate the validity of the scale in light of the fact that the IP is empirically demonstrated to be linked to the external locus of control (e.g., Clance and Imes 1978, p. 242; Rohrmann et al. 2016).

4. Conclusions

The objective of this study was to evaluate the psychometric properties and cross-national applicability of the Impostor Phenomenon Short Scale (IPSS-3; Jansen 2024b) to test its suitability as a useful instrument for assessing the role of social contexts in IP intensity. Since existing IP instruments barely allow for an integration into research designs with severe time limitations, the IPSS-3 was explicitly developed to address questions that can best be assessed in large-scale or longitudinal surveys, e.g., concerning the overall appearance of IP feelings and their evolution throughout the life course. The IPSS-3 is based on the established Impostor Self-Concept Questionnaire (ISCQ; Rohrmann et al. 2020) and has been designed to capture IP sentiments in different social science disciplines to improve the quality of the findings and increase respondent satisfaction (Roberts et al. 2010; Cornesse and Blom 2023). Since the IP is assessed in various regional contexts, an economic instrument like the IPSS-3 can be especially useful in facilitating international comparative studies. These could be of practical use for providing initial information concerning the overall distribution of IP feelings as well as where and how they can be addressed. As a context- and age-neutral instrument that can be completed within a very short time, the IPSS-3 can thus be useful for a wide range of disciplines interested in examining the role of internalized notions, e.g., for well-being, social participation, and educational or career developments.

Previous studies have shown that it is questionable to rely on one- or two-item scales as these are too short to properly test their psychometric properties (Moore et al. 2002). On the other hand, it cannot be in the interest of social science research, with all its facets, to cover every topic with comprehensive scales, as is commonly done in IP research. As a validated three-item measure, the IPSS-3 can capture IP feelings in a way that current instruments do not permit. Hence, it can be seen as a kind of compromise, bridging two lines of thought, one concerned with the adequate measurement of social phenomena and the other with their large-scale measurement, in order to be able to contextualize them properly.

To test the cross-national usability of the IPSS-3 for social research designs, the psychometric properties of the scale were compared using data from two independent samples from Germany and Israel. Overall, the analyses indicate that the IPSS-3 is a reliable and valid short instrument for measuring the IP, as the psychometric properties of the Hebrew adaptation of the scale are quite similar to those of the original German version. Specifically, reliability measures of Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega show acceptable scores for (ultra-) short scales, while CFA indicates that all three items score onto a single factor.

Moreover, the results of both samples concerning correlations with validation measures for the external locus of control and self-esteem underscore the convergent validity of the IPSS-3. These findings illustrate that the IPSS-3 is not only applicable in different social and regional contexts but also in different languages and even in different scripts/alphabets. This is particularly beneficial given that more quantitative comparative studies are needed to examine the social origins of the IP based on data from different social groups (Cokley et al. 2024). While Israel and Germany share parallels in terms of changing social structures since the 1970s and the present study indicates that the IP might be similarly relevant in both countries, different sociocultural dynamics, e.g., related to the educational systems, social norms, and attitudes towards success, might affect both the manifestation of the IP as well as its assessment and interpretation via the IPSS-3. A detailed examination of such concerns was out of the scope of this study but should be taken into account in follow-up analyses that could include instruments allowing for an assessment of such sociocultural dynamics.

While the results presented here generally highlight the effectiveness of the IPSS-3 and underline its advantages, they are, of course, subject to several limitations. First, the data only relate to the German and Hebrew versions of the scale, which is why recommendations for using it only relate to these two versions. Future studies might validate English and additional language versions of the IPSS-3. In addition, all results reported in this study are based on self-reports, which means that correlations with real-life criteria or other sources are not provided. Furthermore, as the study populations were recruited through panel providers, the findings must be considered as being based on convenience samples. Therefore, they should not be generalized beyond this study’s samples. For this reason, it was also out of the scope of this study to provide a comprehensive examination of the role of social context for IP intensity, since larger and more representative samples are more suitable for such purposes. In this sense, the present study tries to set the methodological stage for follow-up examinations on a broader base by cross-nationally validating the IPSS-3 as a suitable instrument for such endeavors.

The IPSS-3 was developed as a universally applicable instrument that is age- and context-independent. However, it must be taken into account that this choice has drawbacks in terms of its application in diverse social populations: Given that the IP, for example, shows high correlations with perceived discrimination and appears to occur particularly frequently in marginalized social groups, it might be desirable to also use instruments that by design reflect the role of (oppressive/racialized) social environments, structures, and systems (Cokley et al. 2024, p. 418). The IPSS-3 does not cover these aspects, which underlines the value of subsequent methodological developments in this direction that could also promote meaningful involvement of those most affected by the IP throughout the whole study design process (for a more detailed discussion of these issues, see Adley et al. 2024).

It should be noted that the IPSS-3 is not recommended for diagnostic purposes, as it is not suitable for the detailed assessment and exploration of different facets of the IP, let alone for designing appropriate interventions. Rather, it serves to examine the IP in combination with other constructs and phenomena of interest in social research. Given that most existing IP studies are based on convenience samples, which are often relatively small and highly selective, there is a significant gap in the current evidence base when it comes to social context factors. Consequently, the IPSS-3 is a particularly promising tool for facilitating new avenues in IP research from a social sciences perspective, with its powerful specialty of placing social phenomena in historical and social contexts.

A final limitation of the present study is the absence of contextual variables, such as social or organizational factors. However, the primary aim was to introduce and cross-nationally validate a measurement tool that could facilitate this approach, rather than to investigate contextual factors. To this end, well-established constructs (self-esteem and locus of control) were used for validation purposes, as these are recognized correlates of the IP addressed in the field of psychology. This approach was chosen to ensure that the study speaks to both psychological research, by adhering to established validation practices, and social/sociological research, by providing a rigorously tested instrument suitable for future investigations of social context.

In particular, international comparative studies intended to gain more insight into, e.g., the role of the design of educational systems and program designs, could be part of a future research agenda that could profit greatly from the IPSS-3. Moreover, in light of the fact that the IP is already assessed among diverse student populations, it could be promising to implement the IPSS-3 in university surveys that follow their students throughout their educational pathways and beyond. Especially, a long-term assessment among graduates and alumni could be a promising line for future research interested in the development of the IP throughout the life course and relevant transitions. This aligns with calls in management research to reframe the IP as a product of organizational cultures rather than merely an individual deficit (Galloway 2025). Such perspectives broaden the implications of IP research for leadership development and institutional change. Moreover, from a methodological perspective, it would make sense to compare the validity of different IP instruments and examine the usefulness of well-established instruments in light of newly developed ones.

In conclusion, the findings of this study underscore the reliability and validity of the IPSS-3 in cross-national contexts based on its statistical properties in two samples. Thus, the findings underline that the IPSS-3 represents a validated, time-efficient, and universally applicable instrument for capturing IP sentiments that is ready to be implemented in large-scale and longitudinal surveys. The application of the IPSS-3 in large-scale studies will allow for addressing some of the pressing open questions in IP research, e.g., concerning gender disparities in IP intensity, its association with transitions in the life course, and, in particular, the role of age, which represents “a key open question that future studies evaluating employed populations (rather than just evaluating students)” should address (Bravata et al. 2019). Thus, the IPSS-3 represents an innovative tool that can promote new approaches to the study and contextualization of the IP from a social science perspective. This might be particularly relevant given the widespread tendency toward individualization in current IP research.