Did Immigrants Perceive More Job Insecurity during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic? Evidence from German Panel Data
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Do Immigrants Experience More Subjective Job Insecurity?
2.1. Objective and Subjective Job Insecurity
2.2. Differences in Subjective Job Insecurity
2.2.1. Conditions Signaling Objective Risk of Job Loss
2.2.2. Conditions Signaling Means to Cope with Job Loss
2.2.3. Conditions Signaling Acceptance and Inclusion
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Data, Sample, and Target Population
3.2. Measures
3.3. Modeling Strategy
4. Results
4.1. Descriptive Statistics of Subjective Job Insecurity before and during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic
4.2. Results from Regression Models on Fear of Job Loss during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic
4.3. Results from Regression Models on Financial Worries before and during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic
5. Discussion and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Sample for M1a | Sample for M3a | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |
Financial worries | - | - | 0.60 | 0.64 |
Fear of job loss | 9.09 | 18.31 | - | - |
Generation status | ||||
Native-born ethnic majority | 0.80 | 0.40 | 0.80 | 0.40 |
Second generation | 0.06 | 0.24 | 0.06 | 0.24 |
First generation | 0.14 | 0.34 | 0.13 | 0.34 |
Female | 0.61 | 0.49 | 0.60 | 0.49 |
Age in years | 47.42 | 9.72 | 45.93 | 9.49 |
Educational attainment | ||||
Low (ISCED 1-2) | 0.04 | 0.20 | 0.04 | 0.19 |
Medium (ISCED 3-5) | 0.59 | 0.49 | 0.60 | 0.49 |
High (ISCED 6-8) | 0.37 | 0.48 | 0.36 | 0.48 |
Self-assessed health | 7.50 | 1.77 | 7.20 | 1.87 |
Occupational status (SIOPS) | 47.03 | 12.75 | 47.11 | 13.02 |
Atypical employment | 1.14 | 0.35 | 1.16 | 0.36 |
Prior episodes of unemployment (in years) | 0.73 | 2.18 | 0.70 | 2.07 |
Employment tenure (in years) | 13.17 | 10.52 | 12.00 | 10.32 |
Employment tenure squared (in years2) | 0.33 | 0.47 | 0.33 | 0.47 |
Public sector | ||||
Type of job | ||||
Blue collar | 0.11 | 0.31 | 0.12 | 0.33 |
White collar | 0.80 | 0.40 | 0.78 | 0.41 |
Civil servant | 0.10 | 0.29 | 0.09 | 0.29 |
Part-time | 0.34 | 0.47 | 0.35 | 0.48 |
Short-time work | 0.05 | 0.21 | - | - |
Household income (net, ln(Euro)) | 8.17 | 0.48 | 8.14 | 0.48 |
Household income contribution | ||||
One-person household | 0.32 | 0.46 | 0.31 | 0.46 |
Respondent contributes more than 2/3 to income | 0.53 | 0.50 | 0.52 | 0.50 |
Respondent contributes equal/less than 2/3 | 0.16 | 0.36 | 0.17 | 0.37 |
Single parent | 0.05 | 0.22 | 0.06 | 0.23 |
Number of children in household (<age 14) | 0.58 | 0.87 | 0.64 | 0.91 |
Religious boundaries | ||||
Christian | 0.60 | 0.49 | 0.60 | 0.49 |
Muslim | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.06 |
Other | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.01 | 0.11 |
No affiliation | 0.38 | 0.49 | 0.38 | 0.49 |
Survey year | ||||
2015 | - | - | 0.11 | 0.31 |
2016 | - | - | 0.11 | 0.31 |
2017 | - | - | 0.14 | 0.35 |
2018 | - | - | 0.15 | 0.36 |
2019 | - | - | 0.17 | 0.38 |
2020 | 0.52 | 0.50 | 0.17 | 0.37 |
2021 | 0.48 | 0.50 | 0.15 | 0.36 |
N | 5357 | 16,704 |
Sample for M1b | Sample for M3b | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |
Financial worries | - | - | 0.82 | 0.66 |
Fear of job loss | 15.30 | 23.36 | - | |
Years since migration | 22.12 | 10.19 | 20.21 | 10.23 |
Female | 0.63 | 0.48 | 0.61 | 0.49 |
Age in years | 44.76 | 9.21 | 43.36 | 9.16 |
Educational attainment | ||||
Low (ISCED 1–2) | 0.09 | 0.29 | 0.09 | 0.28 |
Medium (ISCED 3–5) | 0.43 | 0.50 | 0.44 | 0.50 |
High (ISCED 6–8) | 0.48 | 0.50 | 0.47 | 0.50 |
Degree acquired abroad | 0.33 | 0.47 | 0.35 | 0.48 |
German language proficiency | 3.51 | 0.61 | 3.46 | 0.66 |
Self-assessed health | 7.62 | 1.75 | 7.43 | 1.82 |
Occupational status (SIOPS) | 44.19 | 14.70 | 44.29 | 14.99 |
Atypical employment | 0.19 | 0.39 | 0.21 | 0.41 |
Prior episodes of unemployment (in years) | 0.74 | 1.88 | 0.66 | 1.70 |
Employment tenure (in years) | 8.38 | 6.69 | 7.37 | 6.72 |
Employment tenure squared (in years2) | 0.24 | 0.43 | 0.24 | 0.43 |
Public sector | ||||
Type of job | ||||
Blue collar | 0.17 | 0.37 | 0.19 | 0.40 |
White collar | 0.81 | 0.39 | 0.78 | 0.41 |
Civil servant | 0.02 | 0.15 | 0.02 | 0.14 |
Part-time | 0.31 | 0.46 | 0.31 | 0.46 |
Short-time work | 0.07 | 0.26 | - | - |
Household income (net, ln(Euro)) | 8.10 | 0.48 | 8.07 | 0.46 |
Household income contribution | ||||
One-person household | 0.24 | 0.43 | 0.23 | 0.42 |
Respondent contributes more than 2/3 to income | 0.56 | 0.50 | 0.57 | 0.50 |
Respondent contributes equal/less than 2/3 | 0.20 | 0.40 | 0.21 | 0.40 |
Single parent | 0.04 | 0.20 | 0.03 | 0.18 |
Number of children in household (<age 14) | 0.73 | 0.93 | 0.75 | 0.93 |
Religious boundaries | ||||
Christian | 0.58 | 0.49 | 0.58 | 0.49 |
Muslim | 0.02 | 0.13 | 0.02 | 0.14 |
Other | 0.06 | 0.23 | 0.05 | 0.23 |
No affiliation | 0.35 | 0.48 | 0.34 | 0.48 |
Legal status | ||||
German/EU-citizen | 0.83 | 0.37 | 0.82 | 0.38 |
Unlimited residence permit | 0.14 | 0.35 | 0.15 | 0.36 |
Temporary residence permit | 0.02 | 0.15 | 0.02 | 0.14 |
Survey year | ||||
2019 | - | - | 0.09 | 0.29 |
2016 | - | - | 0.12 | 0.32 |
2017 | - | - | 0.14 | 0.34 |
2018 | - | - | 0.15 | 0.36 |
2019 | - | - | 0.18 | 0.38 |
2020 | 0.54 | 0.50 | 0.18 | 0.38 |
2021 | 0.46 | 0.50 | 0.15 | 0.36 |
n | 651 | 1988 |
DV: Fear of Job Loss | NACE | NACE | KldB 10 | KldB 10 | NACE |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Scale: Self-Assessed Percentage (0–100) | 1-Digit | 2-Digit | 1-Digit | 2-Digit | KldB 10 1-Digit |
Years since migration | −0.13 | −0.12 | −0.10 | −0.17 | −0.14 |
Female (vs. male) | −3.26 | −3.51 | −1.92 | −0.85 | −2.12 |
Age in years | 0.04 | 0.02 | −0.01 | 0.14 | 0.07 |
Conditions signaling objective risks of job loss | |||||
Educational attainment (Ref.: low (ISCED 1–2)) | |||||
Medium (ISCED 3–5) | −0.62 | −1.95 | −1.94 | −0.68 | −0.52 |
High (ISCED 6–8) | 0.21 | −2.22 | −0.70 | 0.21 | 0.26 |
Degree acquired abroad | 0.71 | 2.68 | 1.09 | 0.94 | 0.79 |
German language proficiency | 0.53 | 0.82 | −0.73 | −0.76 | 0.19 |
Self-assessed health | −1.43 * | −1.56 * | −1.44 * | −0.96 | −1.52 * |
Occupational status (SIOPS) | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.02 | 0.13 | 0.05 |
Atypical employment (Ref.: no) | 3.10 | 4.97 | 3.16 | 3.77 | 3.09 |
Prior episodes of unemployment (in years) | 1.28 | 1.83 | 1.15 | 0.24 | 1.16 |
Employment tenure (in years) | 0.47 | 0.88 | 0.80 | 0.87 | 0.60 |
Employment tenure squared (in years2) | −0.03 | −0.04 * | −0.04 | −0.04 * | −0.03 |
Public sector (vs. private sector) | 0.97 | 2.96 | −0.30 | −2.51 | 1.87 |
Type of job (Ref.: blue collar) | |||||
White collar | 1.07 | 1.86 | 1.47 | 1.84 | 1.33 |
Civil servant | −6.74 | −11.68 * | −7.07 | −2.41 | −7.21 |
Part-time work (vs. full-time work) | 5.27 * | 4.67 | 3.18 | 2.93 | 4.89 * |
Short-time work | 10.38 * | 7.21 | 8.91 * | 8.38 | 8.95 * |
Conditions signaling means to cope with job loss | |||||
Household income (net, ln(Euro)) | −3.81 | −4.52 | −2.83 | −4.45 | −4.16 |
Household income contribution (Ref. one-person HH) | |||||
Respondent contributes more than 2/3 to income | 0.38 | 0.78 | 0.63 | 3.42 | 0.01 |
Respondent contributes equal/less than 2/3 | −2.32 | −1.29 | −1.66 | 2.10 | −2.60 |
Single parent | −5.55 | −5.50 | −6.15 | −5.05 | −5.54 |
Number of children in household (<age 14) | 1.90 | 2.24 | 1.19 | −0.04 | 1.67 |
Conditions signaling acceptance and inclusion | |||||
Religious boundaries (Ref.: Christian) | |||||
Muslim | −9.55 | −10.89 | −7.60 | −7.61 | −10.18 |
Other | −0.83 | −0.05 | −0.58 | 1.39 | −0.48 |
No affiliation | −0.91 | −1.37 | −2.10 | −0.58 | −2.09 |
Legal status (Ref.: German/EU-citizen) | |||||
Unlimited residence permit | 3.80 | 2.85 | 4.29 | 4.67 | 5.17 |
Temporary residence permit | 7.37 | 4.12 | 7.81 | 11.97 | 9.10 |
Occupation and industry FEs | yes | yes | yes | yes | yes |
Survey year 2021 (Ref.: 2020) | −5.43 *** | −5.91 *** | −5.84 *** | −6.15 *** | −5.63 *** |
Intercept | 62.20 * | 65.97 * | 42.66 | 39.81 | 55.26 * |
R2 | 0.172 | 0.262 | 0.169 | 0.228 | 0.200 |
n | 649 | 649 | 644 | 644 | 642 |
M3a All Respondents | M3b First Generation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
DV: Financial Worries Scale: 0–2 (0 = Not Concerned, 2 = Very Concerned) | Main Effects (’15–’19) | Interactions with ‘20/’21 | Main Effects (’15–’19) | Interactions with ‘20/’21 |
Generation status (Ref.: native-born ethnic majority) | ||||
Second generation | 0.05 | −0.01 | ||
First generation | 0.11 *** | 0.12 *** | ||
Years since migration | - | - | −0.00 | −0.00 |
Female (vs. male) | 0.09 *** | −0.04 | 0.02 | −0.03 |
Age in years | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.00 |
Conditions signaling objective risks of job loss | ||||
Educational attainment (Ref.: low (ISCED 1–2)) | ||||
Medium (ISCED 3–5) | −0.12 * | −0.01 | −0.09 | 0.02 |
High (ISCED 6–8) | −0.18 *** | 0.02 | −0.20 | 0.08 |
Degree acquired abroad | - | - | 0.12 | 0.04 |
German language proficiency | - | - | −0.06 | 0.04 |
Self-assessed health | −0.05 *** | 0.01 | −0.05 *** | −0.02 |
Occupational status (SIOPS) | −0.00 *** | 0.00 | −0.00 | 0.00 |
Atypical employment (Ref.: no) | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.12 * | −0.05 |
Prior episodes of unemployment (in years) | 0.01 * | 0.01 * | 0.02 | 0.01 |
Employment tenure (in years) | −0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Employment tenure squared (in years2) | −0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.00 |
Public sector (vs. private sector) | −0.01 | −0.17 *** | −0.00 | −0.20 ** |
Type of job (Ref.: blue collar) | ||||
White collar | −0.08 ** | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.01 |
Civil servant | −0.20 *** | −0.03 | 0.09 | −0.43 |
Part-time work (vs. full-time work) | −0.02 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 |
Conditions signaling means to cope with job loss | ||||
Household income (net, ln(Euro)) | −0.31 *** | 0.16 *** | −0.32 *** | 0.17 |
Household income contribution (Ref. one-person HH) | ||||
Respondent contributes more than 2/3 to income | 0.11 *** | −0.02 | 0.24 ** | −0.15 |
Respondent contributes equal/less than 2/3 | 0.10 *** | −0.03 | 0.14 | −0.18 |
Single parent | 0.11 ** | −0.13 * | 0.14 | −0.45 * |
Number of children in household (<age 14) | 0.03 *** | 0.01 | −0.01 | 0.04 |
Conditions signaling acceptance and inclusion | ||||
Religious boundaries (Ref.: Christian) | ||||
Muslim | 0.20 | 0.06 | 0.37 * | −0.20 |
Other | 0.07 | −0.00 | −0.10 | 0.05 |
No affiliation | 0.01 | −0.02 | 0.04 | −0.15 * |
Legal status (Ref.: German/EU-citizen) | ||||
Unlimited residence permit | - | - | −0.02 | −0.00 |
Temporary residence permit | - | - | −0.01 | 0.01 |
Occupation and industry FEs | no | no | ||
Survey year (Ref.: 2015) | ||||
2016 | −0.05 ** | 0.02 | ||
2017 | −0.04 * | 0.03 | ||
2018 | −0.13*** | −0.12 * | ||
2019 | −0.04 * | 0.06 | ||
2020 (conditional) | 0.09 *** | 0.12 ** | ||
2021 (conditional) | −1.66 *** | −1.23 | ||
Intercept | 3.75 *** | 4.22 *** | ||
R2 | 0.165 | 0.156 | ||
n | 16,704 | 1988 |
DV: Fear of Job Loss Scale: Self-Assessed Percentage (0–100) | M2a | M2b | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
DV: Financial Worries Scale: 0–2 (0 = Not Concerned, 2 = Very Concerned) | M4a | M4b | ||
KldB 2010 (2-digit) | Ref.: 11 | Ref.: 12 | Ref.: 11 | Ref.: 11 |
12 | 0.81 | - | −0.09 | −2.13 *** |
21 | −23.31 * | 18.94 | 0.25 | −1.87 *** |
22 | 4.81 | 41.70 * | 0.00 | −1.69 *** |
23 | −2.03 | 6.56 | 0.18 | −1.85 *** |
24 | 0.96 | 27.32 | 0.16 | −1.65 *** |
25 | −1.03 | 30.24 | 0.13 | −1.52 *** |
26 | −5.03 | 11.01 | 0.07 | −1.44 *** |
27 | −4.28 | 17.00 | 0.03 | −1.73 *** |
28 | −14.08 | 61.80 * | −0.03 | −1.47 *** |
29 | −2.96 | 6.33 | −0.01 | −1.79 *** |
31 | −1.34 | 32.01 | −0.08 | −1.36 *** |
32 | 5.16 | 100.41 *** | 0.02 | −1.62 *** |
33 | 4.43 | 30.72 | −0.10 | −1.80 *** |
34 | 2.38 | −4.19 | 0.05 | −1.71 *** |
41 | −2.54 | −2.08 | −0.07 | −1.80 *** |
42 | 5.25 | 66.63 *** | 0.01 | −0.78 * |
43 | −2.69 | 23.89 | −0.02 | −1.68 *** |
51 | −0.39 | 28.72 | −0.00 | −1.75 *** |
52 | 2.41 | 40.88 * | 0.07 | −1.49 *** |
53 | −1.90 | 4.42 | 0.03 | −1.52 *** |
54 | 3.05 | 27.78 * | 0.04 | −1.35 *** |
61 | 0.35 | 39.44 * | 0.09 | −1.65 *** |
62 | −1.29 | 31.82 | −0.01 | −1.96 *** |
63 | 0.70 | 5.34 | −0.19 | −2.32 *** |
71 | −3.31 | 24.53 | 0.00 | −1.53 *** |
72 | −2.68 | 13.26 | −0.05 | −1.72 *** |
73 | −3.13 | 26.14 | −0.00 | −1.50 *** |
81 | −4.52 | 13.64 | −0.07 | −1.78 *** |
82 | −4.61 | 12.39 | 0.00 | −1.50 *** |
83 | −3.44 | 19.44 | −0.01 | −1.42 *** |
84 | −3.79 | 6.82 | −0.04 | −1.59 *** |
91 | 6.07 | 11.53 | 0.01 | −1.64 *** |
92 | −2.25 | 27.50 | −0.04 | −1.43 *** |
93 | 12.44 | - | 0.10 | - |
94 | 2.30 | - | −0.02 | - |
NACE (2-digit) | Ref.: 1 | Ref.: 10 | Ref.: 1 | Ref.: 1 |
2 | 1.17 | - | −0.02 | - |
3 | −7.62 | - | −0.85 *** | - |
5 | 34.65 *** | - | −0.04 | - |
6 | - | - | 0.30 ** | - |
10 | 8.09 * | - | −0.10 | 0.55 * |
11 | 0.79 | - | −0.03 | - |
13 | 25.09 * | 10.03 | 0.16 | 0.75 *** |
14 | 5.90 | −52.78 *** | −0.10 | 0.33 |
15 | 55.60 *** | −14.64 | −0.09 | 0.18 |
16 | −0.21 | −40.78 ** | −0.09 | 0.08 |
17 | 4.06 | −19.23 | −0.20 | 0.66 *** |
18 | 14.67 ** | −7.54 | −0.16 | 0.77 * |
19 | −0.01 | - | −0.65 *** | - |
20 | 7.20 * | 12.25 | −0.20 * | 0.64 ** |
21 | 8.14 | −1.36 | −0.03 | 0.90 *** |
22 | 4.95 | −32.88 | 0.06 | 0.79 *** |
23 | 14.70 * | - | −0.19 | 0.52 |
24 | 15.67 ** | - | 0.10 | 1.03 *** |
25 | 11.65 ** | 2.20 | −0.20 * | 0.41 * |
26 | 11.54 ** | −1.83 | −0.09 | 0.50 |
27 | 9.61 ** | −10.12 | −0.08 | 0.43 |
28 | 11.40 *** | 10.43 | −0.16 | 0.25 |
29 | 10.04 ** | −10.05 | −0.09 | 0.44 * |
30 | 14.08 * | −18.16 | 0.02 | 0.72 ** |
31 | 1.53 | - | −0.25 | 0.27 |
32 | 13.52 *** | −1.22 | −0.06 | 0.58 * |
33 | −2.50 | −30.27* | −0.33 | −0.46 * |
35 | 10.05 * | - | −0.13 | - |
36 | 0.32 | - | −0.13 | −0.08 |
37 | - | - | 0.43 | - |
38 | 2.46 | - | −0.09 | - |
41 | 5.63 | −24.56 * | −0.12 | 0.38 |
42 | 5.55 | −31.48 * | −0.24 * | −0.54 |
43 | 5.55 | −9.81 | −0.10 | 0.35 |
45 | 10.14 * | −17.06 | −0.20 | 0.21 |
46 | 8.33 * | −29.36 | −0.13 | 0.36 |
47 | 3.61 | −14.46 | −0.07 | 0.72 *** |
49 | 5.83 | −20.25 | −0.09 | 0.31 |
50 | −2.96 | - | 0.06 | - |
51 | 27.27 ** | 9.75 | −0.04 | 0.33 |
52 | 1.91 | −18.37 | −0.11 | 0.58 * |
53 | 0.84 | −17.84 | −0.16 | 0.59 * |
55 | 8.14 | 20.38 | −0.03 | 0.94 *** |
56 | 19.39 *** | 16.33 | 0.10 | 0.75 ** |
58 | 12.61 | - | −0.24* | 0.44 |
59 | −9.43 | - | −0.62* | - |
60 | 16.03 * | −30.00 ** | 0.03 | 0.42 |
61 | 2.75 | −21.01 | −0.18 | −0.20 |
62 | 8.31 ** | −8.80 | −0.08 | 0.45 * |
63 | 3.02 | −43.96 ** | −0.15 | −0.21 |
64 | 6.40 * | −15.82 | −0.06 | 0.72 ** |
65 | 3.82 | −6.46 | −0.15 | 0.51* |
66 | 2.34 | - | −0.04 | - |
68 | 1.35 | 0.34 | −0.18 | 0.89 *** |
69 | 3.33 | −2.35 | −0.09 | 0.56 ** |
70 | 7.70 | - | −0.12 | - |
71 | 4.96 | −29.35 | −0.18 | 0.31 |
72 | 5.80 | −24.37 * | −0.00 | 0.47 |
73 | 12.13* | −29.37 * | −0.04 | 0.32 |
74 | 5.76 | −0.78 | 0.03 | 0.64 * |
75 | −0.38 | - | −0.18 | - |
78 | 9.05 | 2.31 | 0.18 | 1.18 *** |
79 | 4.22 | −7.98 | −0.12 | 0.60 * |
80 | 5.02 | - | −0.20 | −0.02 |
81 | 3.05 | 2.61 | −0.05 | 0.69 ** |
82 | 5.50 | −17.35 | −0.06 | 0.36 |
84 | 3.16 | −17.41 | −0.17* | 0.29 |
85 | 4.14 | −10.80 | −0.09 | 0.34 |
86 | 2.71 | −16.10 | −0.04 | 0.62 *** |
87 | −0.52 | −15.88 | −0.15 | 0.30 |
88 | 1.87 | −22.10 * | −0.10 | 0.23 |
90 | 13.83 | 12.36 | 0.06 | 0.96 *** |
91 | 5.68 | - | −0.32 | - |
92 | 17.08 | 21.15 | −0.37 ** | 0.27 |
93 | 20.26 * | - | 0.03 | - |
94 | 6.00 | 0.00 | −0.14 | 0.41 * |
95 | 27.42 | - | −0.04 | - |
96 | 9.11 | −2.65 | 0.03 | - |
97 | 10.03 | - | 0.30 | - |
99 | 0.16 | - | −0.32* | - |
n | 5310 | 642 | 16,409 | 1942 |
1. | Individuals who worked short-time in 2020 (n = 221) were not asked whether they usually worked full time or part time. To fill in these blanks, we had to rely on information from 2019 and were able to assign corresponding values to 190 employees. |
2. | Data preparation and data analyses were performed using Stata 17.0 MP. Replication code is available at www.github.com/mbue/ji-cov-mig (accessed on 11 April 2022). |
3. | Despite the ordinal measurement of the dependent variable “financial worries”, we refrain from presenting ordered logit models for two reasons: They show comparable effects to linear models (results upon request), and linear models allow for comparisons across model specifications (Mood 2010). |
4. | We present descriptive statistics separately for the two samples in Appendix A (for the overall sample used in models M1a/3a, see Table A1, and for the sample of first-generation immigrants used in models M1b/M3b, see Table A2). |
5. | We had to drop a small number of cases in models M2a/b and M4a/b due to missing information on occupation and/or industry categories. |
6. | Although it seems counter-intuitive to estimate interactions for the years 2020/2021 while controlling for a discrete time trend, separate models for both periods of interest (i.e., 2015–2019 and 2020–2021) with a discrete time trend yield the same point estimates as the fully interacted model. |
7. | Practically, we derive yearly weighted means for the first generation, the second generation, and the native-born ethnic majority with an OLS regression capturing only the interactions between generation status and survey-year dummies while applying weights. |
8. | In Table A3 in Appendix A, we present five additional models with alternative fixed-effects specifications. They illustrate the degree to which the various coefficients are sensitive to the kind of specification. While some of the estimates show variation across specifications, the various alternatives yield robust results for most estimates. |
9. | Table A5 in Appendix A displays the estimates for occupation and industry fixed effects for models M2a/2b and M4a/4b. |
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DV: Fear of Job Loss | M1a | M2a | M1b | M2b |
---|---|---|---|---|
Scale: Self-Assessed Percentage (0–100) | All Respondents | First Generation | ||
Generation status (Ref.: native-born ethnic majority) | ||||
Second generation | 0.05 | 0.40 | – | – |
First generation | 3.98 *** | 4.37 *** | – | – |
Years since migration | – | – | −0.09 | −0.16 |
Female (vs. male) | 0.49 | 2.32 *** | −4.54 | −1.88 |
Age in years | −0.01 | 0.04 | −0.09 | 0.16 |
Conditions signaling objective risks of job loss | ||||
Educational attainment (Ref.: low (ISCED 1–2)) | ||||
Medium (ISCED 3–5) | −2.24 | −1.20 | −2.21 | 2.41 |
High (ISCED 6–8) | −1.57 | −1.14 | −0.12 | 3.50 |
Degree acquired abroad | – | – | −0.25 | 0.21 |
German language proficiency | – | – | −0.17 | 0.58 |
Self-assessed health | −0.89 *** | −0.86 *** | −1.29 * | −1.16 |
Occupational status (SIOPS) | −0.03 | 0.05 | −0.13 | 0.18 |
Atypical employment (Ref.: no) | 1.71 | 1.76 | 3.32 | 4.37 |
Prior episodes of unemployment (in years) | 0.37 | 0.32 | 1.32 | 0.72 |
Employment tenure (in years) | −0.05 | −0.11 | 0.82 | 1.22 * |
Employment tenure squared (in years squared) | −0.00 | 0.00 | −0.03 | −0.06 ** |
Public sector (vs. private sector) | −6.59 *** | −4.18 *** | −4.36 | 0.89 |
Type of job (Ref.: blue collar) | ||||
White collar | −2.36 * | −0.48 | −0.16 | 1.30 |
Civil servant | −4.30 *** | −1.39 | −10.34 * | −7.20 |
Part-time work (vs. full-time work) | −0.37 | 0.22 | 2.74 | 5.06 * |
Short-time work | 17.11 *** | 13.89 *** | 12.00 ** | 6.96 |
Conditions signaling means to cope with job loss | ||||
Household income (net, ln(Euro)) | −2.39 ** | −3.28 *** | −2.39 | −7.05 * |
Household income contribution (Ref. one-person household) | ||||
Respondent contributes more than 2/3 to income | 0.74 | 1.19 | 0.73 | 4.07 |
Respondent contributes equal/less than 2/3 | −0.10 | −0.04 | −2.04 | 3.08 |
Single parent | −0.13 | −0.13 | −6.66 | −4.51 |
Number of children in household (<age 14) | 0.71 | 0.56 | 1.56 | 0.45 |
Conditions signaling acceptance and inclusion | ||||
Religious boundaries (Ref.: Christian) | ||||
Muslim | 1.47 | 2.14 | −4.50 | −11.88 |
Other | 1.51 | 0.79 | −1.84 | 1.26 |
No affiliation | 0.81 | 0.54 | 0.08 | 0.40 |
Legal status (Ref.: German/EU-citizen) | ||||
Unlimited residence permit | – | – | 1.31 | 4.10 |
Temporary residence permit | – | – | 3.26 | 13.68 |
Occupation and industry FEs | no | yes | no | yes |
Survey year 2021 (Ref.: 2020) | −3.60 *** | −3.77 *** | −5.58 *** | −6.41 *** |
Intercept | 42.55 *** | 36.43 *** | 57.51 * | 47.31 |
R2 | 0.149 | 0.213 | 0.122 | 0.361 |
n | 5357 | 5310 | 651 | 642 |
M4a All Respondents | M4b First Generation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
DV: Financial Worries Scale: 0–2 (0 = Not Concerned, 2 = very Concerned) | Main Effects (’15–’19) | Interactions with ’20/’21 | Main effects (’15–’19) | Interactions with ’20/’21 |
Generation status (Ref.: native-born ethnic majority) | ||||
Second generation | 0.04 | −0.01 | - | - |
First generation | 0.11 *** | 0.13 *** | - | - |
Years since migration | - | - | −0.00 | −0.01 |
Female (vs. male) | 0.10 *** | −0.04 | −0.02 | −0.03 |
Age in years | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.00 |
Conditions signaling objective risks of job loss | ||||
Educational attainment (Ref.: low (ISCED 1–2)) | ||||
Medium (ISCED 3–5) | −0.13 * | −0.02 | −0.03 | −0.04 |
High (ISCED 6–8) | −0.18 *** | 0.02 | −0.16 | 0.02 |
Degree acquired abroad | - | - | 0.15 * | 0.09 |
German language proficiency | - | - | −0.06 | 0.05 |
Self-assessed health | −0.05 *** | 0.01 | −0.05 *** | −0.02 |
Occupational status (SIOPS) | −0.00 ** | 0.00 | −0.00 | 0.00 |
Atypical employment (Ref.: no) | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.12 * | −0.08 |
Prior episodes of unemployment (in years) | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.01 |
Employment tenure (in years) | −0.00 | 0.00 | −0.00 | 0.01 |
Employment tenure squared (in years squared) | −0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.00 |
Public sector (vs. private sector) | 0.01 | −0.17 *** | −0.03 | −0.22 ** |
Type of job (Ref.: blue collar) | ||||
White collar | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.03 | −0.03 |
Civil servant | −0.14 ** | −0.03 | 0.23 | −0.40 |
Part-time work (vs. full-time work) | −0.01 | −0.01 | −0.02 | −0.02 |
Conditions signaling means to cope with job loss | ||||
Household income (net, ln(Euro)) | −0.31 *** | 0.17 *** | −0.38 *** | 0.19 * |
Household income contribution (Ref. one-person HH) | ||||
Respondent contributes more than 2/3 to income | 0.11 *** | −0.02 | 0.27 ** | −0.17 |
Respondent contributes equal/less than 2/3 | 0.10 *** | −0.03 | 0.18 * | −0.21 * |
Single parent | 0.10 * | −0.12 * | 0.10 | −0.46 * |
Number of children in household (<age 14) | 0.03 ** | 0.01 | −0.02 | 0.03 |
Conditions signaling acceptance and inclusion | ||||
Religious boundaries (Ref.: Christian) | ||||
Muslim | 0.18 | 0.05 | 0.35 | −0.16 |
Other | 0.07 | −0.01 | −0.08 | 0.01 |
No affiliation | 0.01 | −0.02 | 0.03 | −0.16 * |
Legal status (Ref.: German/EU-citizen) | ||||
Unlimited residence permit | - | - | −0.00 | −0.05 |
Temporary residence permit | - | - | −0.04 | −0.00 |
Occupation and industry FEs | yes | yes | ||
Survey year (Ref.: 2015) | ||||
2016 | −0.05 ** | 0.01 | ||
2017 | −0.03 * | 0.04 | ||
2018 | −0.13 *** | −0.12 * | ||
2019 | −0.04 * | 0.07 | ||
2020 (conditional) | 0.10 *** | 0.12 ** | ||
2021 (conditional) | −1.72 *** | −1.39 * | ||
Intercept | 3.82 *** | 5.85 *** | ||
R2 | 0.180 | 0.245 | ||
n | 16,409 | 1942 |
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Bürmann, M.; Jacobsen, J.; Kristen, C.; Kühne, S.; Tsolak, D. Did Immigrants Perceive More Job Insecurity during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic? Evidence from German Panel Data. Soc. Sci. 2022, 11, 224. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11050224
Bürmann M, Jacobsen J, Kristen C, Kühne S, Tsolak D. Did Immigrants Perceive More Job Insecurity during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic? Evidence from German Panel Data. Social Sciences. 2022; 11(5):224. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11050224
Chicago/Turabian StyleBürmann, Marvin, Jannes Jacobsen, Cornelia Kristen, Simon Kühne, and Dorian Tsolak. 2022. "Did Immigrants Perceive More Job Insecurity during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic? Evidence from German Panel Data" Social Sciences 11, no. 5: 224. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11050224