Disparities in COVID-19 Impacts on Work Hours and Career Satisfaction by Gender and Race among Scientists in the US: An Online Survey Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Procedure
2.3. Material
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Number of Work Hours
3.2. The COVID-19 Pandemic Impacts on the Perception Regarding Career
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Abbey, Antonia, Christopher Saenz, Michele Parkhill, and Lenwood W. Hayman Jr. 2004. Gender. In Encyclopedia of Women’s Health. Boston: Springer, pp. 517–19. [Google Scholar]
- Abramo, Giovanni, Ciriaco Andrea D’Angelo, and Ida Mele. 2022. Impact of COVID-19 on Research Output by Gender across Countries. Scientometrics 127: 6811–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Acker, Joan. 1990. A Theory of Gendered Organizations. Gender & Society 4: 139–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Aksnes, Dag W., Kristoffer Rorstad, Fredrik Piro, and Gunnar Sivertsen. 2011. Are Female Researchers Less Cited? A Large-scale Study of Norwegian Scientists. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 62: 628–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anders, Sari M. van. 2004. Why the Academic Pipeline Leaks: Fewer Men than Women Perceive Barriers to Becoming Professors. Sex Roles 51: 511–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Baez, Benjamin. 2000. Race-Related Service and Faculty of Color: Conceptualizing Critical Agency in Academe. Higher Education 39: 363–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bailyn, Lotte. 2003. Academic Careers and Gender Equity: Lessons Learned from MIT. Gender, Work & Organization 10: 137–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bell, Michelle L., and Kelvin C. Fong. 2021. Gender Differences in First and Corresponding Authorship in Public Health Research Submissions during the COVID-19 Pandemic. American Journal of Public Health 111: 159–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bentley, Peter James, Hamish Coates, Ian R. Dobson, Leo Goedegebuure, and V. Lynn Meek. 2013. Academic Job Satisfaction from an International Comparative Perspective: Factors Associated with Satisfaction across 12 Countries. In Job Satisfaction around the Academic World. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 239–62. [Google Scholar]
- Bleijenbergh, Inge L., Marloes L. van Engen, and Claartje J. Vinkenburg. 2013. Othering Women: Fluid Images of the Ideal Academic. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal 32: 22–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 1997. Rethinking Racism: Toward a Structural Interpretation. American Sociological Review 62: 465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Breuning, Marijke, Christina Fattore, Jennifer Ramos, and Jamie Scalera. 2021. The Great Equalizer? Gender, Parenting, and Scholarly Productivity during the Global Pandemic. APSC 54: 427–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brown, Cristal, Tessa K. Novick, and Elizabeth A. Jacobs. 2021. Gender Disparities in Authorship of Invited Manuscripts during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Women’s Health Reports 2: 149–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cardel, Michelle I., Emily Dhurandhar, Ceren Yarar-Fisher, Monica Foster, Bertha Hidalgo, Leslie A. McClure, Sherry Pagoto, Nathanial Brown, Dori Pekmezi, and Noha Sharafeldin. 2020. Turning Chutes into Ladders for Women Faculty: A Review and Roadmap for Equity in Academia. Journal of Women’s Health 29: 721–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Clancy, Annette. 2020. On Mothering and Being Mothered: A Personal Reflection on Women’s Productivity during COVID-19. Gender, Work & Organization 27: 857–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Clayton, Janine Austin, and Cara Tannenbaum. 2016. Reporting Sex, Gender, or Both in Clinical Research? JAMA 316: 1863–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Collins, Caitlyn, Liana C. Landivar, Leah Ruppanner, and William J. Scarborough. 2021. COVID-19 and the Gender Gap in Work Hours. Gender, Work & Organization 28: 101–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Crenshaw, Kimberlé. 1989. Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum 1989: 8. [Google Scholar]
- Crenshaw, Kimberlé. 1991. Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color. Stanford Law Review 43: 1241–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Croom, Natasha N. 2017. Promotion Beyond Tenure: Unpacking Racism and Sexism in the Experiences of Black Womyn Professors. The Review of Higher Education 40: 557–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Davis, Angela. 1981. Women, Race, and Class. New York: Vintage. ISBN 0-394-71351-6. [Google Scholar]
- Davis, Kathy. 2008. Intersectionality as Buzzword: A Sociology of Science Perspective on What Makes a Feminist Theory Successful. Feminist Theory 9: 67–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- De Boer, Harry. 2021. COVID-19 in Dutch Higher Education. Studies in Higher Education 46: 96–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Denson, Nida, and Katalin Szelényi. 2022. Faculty Perceptions of Work-Life Balance: The Role of Marital/Relationship and Family Status. Higher Education 83: 261–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Denson, Nida, Katalin Szelényi, and Kate Bresonis. 2018. Correlates of Work-Life Balance for Faculty across Racial/Ethnic Groups. Research in Higher Education 59: 226–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Deryugina, Tatyana, Olga Shurchkov, and Jenna Stearns. 2021. COVID-19 Disruptions Disproportionately Affect Female Academics. AEA Papers and Proceedings 111: 164–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Deutsch, Francine M., and Beier Yao. 2014. Gender Differences in Faculty Attrition in the USA. Community, Work & Family 17: 392–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Domingo, Carmen R., Nancy Counts Gerber, Diane Harris, Laura Mamo, Sally G. Pasion, R. David Rebanal, and Sue V. Rosser. 2022. More Service or More Advancement: Institutional Barriers to Academic Success for Women and Women of Color Faculty at a Large Public Comprehensive Minority-Serving State University. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education 15: 365–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eagan, M. Kevin, and Jason C. Garvey. 2015. Stressing Out: Connecting Race, Gender, and Stress with Faculty Productivity. The Journal of Higher Education 86: 923–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Egede, Leonard E. 2006. Race, Ethnicity, Culture, and Disparities in Health Care. Journal of General Internal Medicine 21: 667–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Escardíbul, Josep-O., and Sergio Afcha. 2017. Determinants of the Job Satisfaction of PhD Holders: An Analysis by Gender, Employment Sector, and Type of Satisfaction in Spain. Higher Education 74: 855–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ferreira, Raquel Alexandra, and Maria Helena Santos. 2022. Gender and Ethnicity: The Role of Successful Women in Promoting Equality and Social Change. Social Sciences 11: 299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frazier, Kimberly N. 2011. Academic Bullying: A Barrier to Tenure and Promotion for African-American Faculty. Florida Journal of Educational Administration & Policy 5: 1–13. [Google Scholar]
- Górska, Anna Maria, Karolina Kulicka, Zuzanna Staniszewska, and Dorota Dobija. 2021. Deepening Inequalities: What Did COVID-19 Reveal about the Gendered Nature of Academic Work? Gender, Work & Organization 28: 1546–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Griffin, Kimberly A., and Richard J. Reddick. 2011. Surveillance and Sacrifice: Gender Differences in the Mentoring Patterns of Black Professors at Predominantly White Research Universities. American Educational Research Journal 48: 1032–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hanasono, Lisa K., Ellen M. Broido, Marmaret M. Yacobucci, Karen V. Root, Susanna Peña, and Deborah A. O’Neil. 2019. Secret Service: Revealing Gender Biases in the Visibility and Value of Faculty Service. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education 12: 85–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Harris, Jessica C., and Lori D. Patton. 2019. Un/Doing Intersectionality through Higher Education Research. The Journal of Higher Education 90: 347–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hirshfield, Laura E., and Tiffany D. Joseph. 2012. ‘We Need a Woman, We Need a Black Woman’: Gender, Race, and Identity Taxation in the Academy. Gender and Education 24: 213–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hussar, Bill, Jijun Zhang, Sarah Hein, Ke Wang, Ashley Roberts, Jiashan Cui, Mary Smith, Farrah Bullock Mann, Amy Barmer, and Rita Dilig. 2020. The Condition of Education 2020 (NCES 2020-144); Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education. Available online: https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2020144 (accessed on 25 April 2022).
- Ivancheva, Mariya, Kathleen Lynch, and Kathryn Keating. 2019. Precarity, Gender and Care in the Neoliberal Academy. Gender, Work & Organization 26: 448–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jacobs, Jerry A. 2004. Presidential Address: The Faculty Time Divide. Sociological Forum 19: 3–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jacobs, Jerry A., and Sarah E. Winslow. 2004. Overworked Faculty: Job Stresses and Family Demands. The ANNALS of the American academy of Political and Social Science 596: 104–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jung, Jisun, Hugo Horta, and Gerard A. Postiglione. 2021. Living in Uncertainty: The COVID-19 Pandemic and Higher Education in Hong Kong. Studies in Higher Education 46: 107–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- King, Molly M., and Megan E. Frederickson. 2021. The Pandemic Penalty: The Gendered Effects of COVID-19 on Scientific Productivity. Socius 7: 1–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Korbel, Jan O., and Oliver Stegle. 2020. Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Life Scientists. Genome Biology 21: 113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lawrence, Janet H., Sergio Celis, Hee Sun Kim, Srah Ketchen Lipson, and Ximeng Tong. 2014. To Stay or Not to Stay: Retention of Asian International Faculty in STEM Fields. Higher Education 67: 511–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malisch, Jessica L., Breanna N. Harris, Shanen M. Sherrer, Kristy A. Lewis, Stephanie L. Shepherd, Pumtiwitt C. McCarthy, Jessica L. Spott, Elizabeth P. Karam, Naima Moustaid-Moussa, Jessica McCrory Calarco, and et al. 2020. Opinion: In the Wake of COVID-19, Academia Needs New Solutions to Ensure Gender Equity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 117: 15378–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mason, Mary Ann, and Marc Goulden. 2004. Marriage and Baby Blues: Redefining Gender Equity in the Academy. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 596: 86–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Monroe, Kristen, Saba Ozyurt, Ted Wrigley, and Amy Alexander. 2008. Gender Equality in Academia: Bad News from the Trenches, and Some Possible Solutions. Perspectives on Politics 6: 215–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Morgenroth, Thekla, M. Gustafsson Sendén, Anna Lindqvist, Emma A. Renström, Michelle K. Ryan, and Thomas A. Morton. 2021. Defending the Sex/Gender Binary: The Role of Gender Identification and Need for Closure. Social Psychological and Personality Science 12: 731–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morning, Ann. 2008. Ethnic Classification in Global Perspective: A Cross-National Survey of the 2000 Census Round. Population Research and Policy Review 27: 239–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nash, Meredith, and Brendan Churchill. 2020. Caring during COVID-19: A Gendered Analysis of Australian University Responses to Managing Remote Working and Caring Responsibilities. Gender, Work & Organization 27: 833–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- NCES. 2019. Full-Time Faculty in Degree-Granting Postsecondary Institutions, by Race/Ethnicity, Sex, and Academic Rank: Fall 2015, Fall 2017, and Fall 2018. Available online: https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d19/tables/dt19_315.20.asp (accessed on 12 April 2022).
- Ng, Roxanna. 1994. Sexism and Racism in the University: Analyzing a Personal Experience. Canadian Woman Studies 14: 41–46. [Google Scholar]
- O’Meara, KerryAnn, Alexandra Kuvaeva, Gudrun Nyunt, Chelsea Waugaman, and Rose Jackson. 2017. Asked More Often: Gender Differences in Faculty Workload in Research Universities and the Work Interactions That Shape Them. American Educational Research Journal 54: 1154–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Meara, KerryAnn, Audrey Jaeger, Joya Misra, Courtney Lennartz, and Alexandra Kuvaeva. 2018. Undoing Disparities in Faculty Workloads: A Randomized Trial Experiment. PLoS ONE 13: e0207316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Pereira, Maria do Mar. 2021. Researching Gender Inequalities in Academic Labor during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Avoiding Common Problems and Asking Different Questions. Gender Work Organ 28: 498–509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Peters, Sanne A., and Rbyn Norton. 2018. Sex and Gender Reporting in Global Health: New Editorial Policies. BMJ Global Health 3: e001038. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Poole, Millicent, Laurel Bornholt, and Fiona Summers. 1997. An International Study of the Gendered Nature of Academic Work: Some Cross-Cultural Explorations. Higher Education 34: 373–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reisner, Sari L., Tonia Poteat, JoAnne Keatley, Mauro Cabral, Tampose Mothopeng, Emilia Dunham, Claire E. Holland, Ryan Max, and Stefan D. Baral. 2016. Global Health Burden and Needs of Transgender Populations: A Review. The Lancet 388: 412–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Riley, Nancy E. 1997. Gender, Power, and Population Change. Population Bulletin 52: 2–48. [Google Scholar]
- Samuel, Edith. 2005. “Unsettling Relations”: Racism and Sexism Experienced by Faculty of Color in a Predominantly White Canadian University. The Journal of Negro Education 74: 76–87. [Google Scholar]
- Sato, Sayaka, Pascal Mark Gygax, Julian Randall, and Marianne Schmid Mast. 2021. The Leaky Pipeline in Research Grant Peer Review and Funding Decisions: Challenges and Future Directions. Higher Education 82: 145–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schiebinger, Londa, and Marcia L. Stefanick. 2016. Gender Matters in Biological Research and Medical Practice. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 67: 136–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Skachkova, Penka. 2007. Academic Careers of Immigrant Women Professors in the US. Higher Education 53: 697–738. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Social Sciences Feminist Network Research Interest Group. 2017. The Burden of Invisible Work in Academia: Social Inequalities and Time Use in Five University Departments. Humboldt Journal of Social Relations 39: 228–45. [Google Scholar]
- Spizzirri, Giancarlo, Rai Eufrásio, Maria Cristina Pereira Lima, Hélio Rubens de Carvalho Nunes, Baudewijntje P. C. Kreukels, Thomas D. Steensma, and Carmita Helena Najjar Abdo. 2021. Proportion of People Identified as Transgender and Non-Binary Gender in Brazil. Scientific Reports 11: 2240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Staniscuaski, Fernanda, Livia Kmetzsch, Rossana C. Soletti, Fernanda Reichert, Eugenia Zandonà, Zelia M. Ludwig, Eliade F. Lima, Adriana Neumann, Ida V. Schwartz, and Pamela B. Mello-Carpes. 2021. Gender, Race and Parenthood Impact Academic Productivity during the COVID-19 Pandemic: From Survey to Action. Frontiers in Psychology 12: 663252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sutherland, Gerogina, Martha Vazquez Corona, Meghan Bohren, Tania King, Lila Moosad, Humaira Maheen, Anna Scovelle, and Cathy Vaughan. 2022. A Rapid Gender Impact Assessment of Australian University Responses to COVID-19. Higher Education Research & Development 41: 2079–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thomas, Cate. 2022. Overcoming Identity Threat: Using Persona Pedagogy in Intersectionality and Inclusion Training. Social Sciences 11: 249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Torgrimson, Britta N., and Christopher T. Minson. 2005. Sex and Gender: What Is the Difference? Journal of Applied Physiology 99: 785–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Toutkoushian, Robert Kevin, and Marcia L. Bellas. 1999. Faculty Time Allocations and Research Productivity: Gender, Race and Family Effects. The Review of Higher Education 22: 367–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walters, Cyrill, Graeme G. Mehl, Patrizio Piraino, Jonathan D. Jansen, and Samantha Kriger. 2022. The Impact of the Pandemic-Enforced Lockdown on the Scholarly Productivity of Women Academics in South Africa. Research Policy 51: 104403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Winslow, Sarah. 2010. Gender Inequality and Time Allocations among Academic Faculty. Gender & Society 24: 769–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wood, J. Luke, Adriel A. Hilton, and Carlos Nevarez. 2016. Faculty of Color and White Faculty: An Analysis of Service in Colleges of Education in the Arizona Public University System. Journal of the Professoriate 8: 85–109. [Google Scholar]
- Yang, Bin, and Cheng Huang. 2021. Turn Crisis into Opportunity in Response to COVID-19: Experience from a Chinese University and Future Prospects. Studies in Higher Education 46: 121–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yi, Stella, Tali Elfassy, Leena Gupta, Christa Myers, and Bonnie Kerker. 2014. Nativity, Language Spoken at Home, Length of Time in the United States, and Race/Ethnicity: Associations with Self-Reported Hypertension. American Journal of Hypertension 27: 237–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Yildirim, T. Murat, and Hande Eslen-Ziya. 2021. The Differential Impact of COVID-19 on the Work Conditions of Women and Men Academics during the Lockdown. Gender Work Organ 28: 243–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Total | Men | Women | Other | |
---|---|---|---|---|
N (%) | N (%) | N (%) | N (%) | |
Gender | ||||
Men | 565 (48.2) | - | - | - |
Women | 588 (50.2) | - | - | - |
Other | 18 (1.6) | - | - | - |
Race/ethnicity b | ||||
Single race | ||||
White NH | 872 (74.6) | 419 (74.3) | 444 (75.6) | 9 (50.0) |
Black NH | 14 (1.2) | 5 (0.9) | 9 (1.5) | 0 (0.0) |
Hispanic | 47 (4.0) | 20 (3.5) | 25 (4.3) | 2 (11.1) |
Asian NH | 175 (15.0) | 92 (16.3) | 82 (14.0) | 1 (5.6) |
Other NH a | 34 (2.9) | 19 (3.4) | 11 (1.9) | 4 (22.2) |
Multi-race NH | 27 (2.3) | 9 (1.6) | 16 (2.7) | 2 (11.1) |
With children (age < 18 years) living at home | ||||
Yes | 477 (40.8) | 226 (40.1) | 246 (41.8) | 5 (29.4) |
No | 692 (59.2) | 338 (59.9) | 342 (58.2) | 12 (70.6) |
Marital status | ||||
Single (never married) | 144 (12.3) | 59 (10.4) | 79 (13.5) | 6 (33.3) |
Married/living together with a partner | 935 (79.8) | 472 (83.6) | 455 (77.4) | 8 (44.4) |
Divorced/separated/widowed | 72 (6.1) | 29 (5.1) | 42 (7.1) | 1 (5.6) |
Unknown | 20 (1.7) | 5 (0.9) | 12 (2.0) | 3 (16.7) |
Field b | ||||
Agriculture | 50 (3.1) | 31 (3.7) | 19 (2.5) | 0 (0.0) |
Astronomy | 10 (0.6) | 8 (0.9) | 2 (0.3) | 0 (0.0) |
Biology | 317 (19.4) | 174 (20.6) | 140 (18.3) | 3 (11.1) |
Chemistry | 68 (4.2) | 48 (5.7) | 19 (2.5) | 1 (3.7) |
Computer | 40 (2.4) | 29 (3.4) | 11 (1.4) | 0 (0.0) |
Engineering | 90 (5.5) | 64 (7.6) | 25 (3.3) | 1 (3.7) |
Environmental science | 100 (6.1) | 63 (7.5) | 33 (4.3) | 4 (14.8) |
Geology | 18 (1.1) | 10 (1.2) | 7 (0.9) | 1 (3.7) |
Mathematics | 62 (3.8) | 37 (4.4) | 24 (3.1) | 1 (3.7) |
Medicine/public health | 552 (33.7) | 221 (26.2) | 323 (42.2) | 8 (29.6) |
Multidisciplinary | 101 (6.2) | 48 (5.7) | 49 (6.4) | 4 (14.8) |
Physics | 52 (3.2) | 40 (4.7) | 12 (1.6) | 0 (0.0) |
Zoology | 29 (1.8) | 17 (2.0) | 12 (1.6) | 0 (0.0) |
Other | 148 (9.0) | 55 (6.5) | 89 (11.6) | 4 (14.8) |
Position | ||||
Assistant professor | 221 (18.9) | 75 (13.3) | 143 (24.3) | 3 (16.7) |
Associate professor | 221 (18.0) | 81 (14.3) | 126 (21.4) | 4 (22.2) |
Professor | 366 (31.3) | 230 (40.7) | 132 (22.4) | 4 (22.2) |
Postdoc | 85 (7.3) | 41 (7.3) | 43 (7.3) | 1 (5.6) |
Researcher | 186 (15.9) | 91 (16.1) | 92 (15.6) | 3 (16.7) |
Dean | 20 (1.7) | 11 (1.9) | 9 (1.5) | 0 (0.0) |
Instructor | 22 (1.9) | 11 (1.9) | 11 (1.9) | 0 (0.0) |
Other | 58 (5.0) | 25 (4.4) | 32 (5.4) | 1 (5.6) |
Unknown | 2 (0.2) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (11.1) |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Heo, S.; Diaz Peralta, P.; Jin, L.; Pereira Nunes, C.R.; Bell, M.L. Disparities in COVID-19 Impacts on Work Hours and Career Satisfaction by Gender and Race among Scientists in the US: An Online Survey Study. Soc. Sci. 2022, 11, 577. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11120577
Heo S, Diaz Peralta P, Jin L, Pereira Nunes CR, Bell ML. Disparities in COVID-19 Impacts on Work Hours and Career Satisfaction by Gender and Race among Scientists in the US: An Online Survey Study. Social Sciences. 2022; 11(12):577. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11120577
Chicago/Turabian StyleHeo, Seulkee, Pedro Diaz Peralta, Lan Jin, Claudia Ribeiro Pereira Nunes, and Michelle L. Bell. 2022. "Disparities in COVID-19 Impacts on Work Hours and Career Satisfaction by Gender and Race among Scientists in the US: An Online Survey Study" Social Sciences 11, no. 12: 577. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11120577
APA StyleHeo, S., Diaz Peralta, P., Jin, L., Pereira Nunes, C. R., & Bell, M. L. (2022). Disparities in COVID-19 Impacts on Work Hours and Career Satisfaction by Gender and Race among Scientists in the US: An Online Survey Study. Social Sciences, 11(12), 577. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11120577