For the purpose of our study in the context of the Hong Kong art ecology, we propose an extended approach to anchor cultural institutions, in that we consider anchor cultural organizations to include both typical anchors (e.g., public museums such as M+, major nonprofit cultural organizations ranging from the Asia Society Hong Kong Center to the Asia Art Archive, government-funded universities and their art programs or departments) as well as some atypical, privately-owned and for-profit institutions (such as the major auction houses Christie’s and Sotheby’s, given that they have been actively established in Hong Kong for half a century already, and to a certain degree, Art Basel Hong Kong, as the biggest art fair based exclusively in the city, though part of a global conglomerate).
Unlike most other art museums in Asia with a primarily national focus, M+ is a multidisciplinary museum with an international collection at its core. Early in its development, M+ has been criticized by local cultural workers questioning the need for Hong Kong to fund a collection of works by mainland Chinese artists and collected by a Western art collector. Another common criticism has been the perceived lack of local curators on its staff and the failure to acquire more local artworks in its 8000-piece collection, of which a quarter are by local artists. Recently, the museum has also been the target of criticism from pro-Beijing politicians in Hong Kong for undermining national security by including in its collection works by the dissident artist Ai Weiwei. All of this signifies a shift, from its inception in the 1990s, in the environment under which this world-class museum will continue to operate.
2.1. The Art Market
In Hong Kong’s art ecology, the dominance of the top end of the art market has created opportunities as well as problems that have led to a number of challenges in terms of the role of art institutions in Hong Kong, the overall place and function of art in society, and potentially its overall long-term sustainability. This situation could potentially have a significant impact on the development of art institutions and fine arts practices in Hong Kong, including on the quality of the local art scene in Hong Kong and on supporting and nurturing the development of the arts in Hong Kong.
Hong Kong’s top-heavy art ecosystem is quite different from more established, mature art scenes around the world, where there has been organic growth of the scenes stemming largely from artist-led studios or artist-led project spaces, as well as the local gallery scene. Instead, in Hong Kong, the focus has tended to be on the auction houses, followed by blue-chip international galleries in the city. In 2020, Hong Kong overtook London as the second most important auction hub, with its global art market share rising from 17.5% in 2019 to 23.2% in 2020 (
ArtTactic 2020b). At the same time, the total value of imports and exports of works of art, collectors’ items, and antiques in Hong Kong in 2020 amounted to HKD 33.6 billion, almost double the value of HKD 17.3 billion in 2017. While the city has been a significant hub for trade in Chinese fine art and antiques for more than a century, the world’s biggest auction houses, Sotheby’s and Christie’s, have been present in the city since the 1970s and 1980s, respectively. In 2020, Asian clients accounted for 34% of Christie’s global auction sales and 30% of Sotheby’s (
McAndrew 2021a). Top-tier auction houses from mainland China, such as Poly Auction and China Guardian, are also established in the city. Auctions and art fairs are the primary purchasing venues for art in Hong Kong, followed by dealers and galleries (
McAndrew 2020). So, Hong Kong’s secondary art market is quite mature and highly saturated.
Over the past decade, Hong Kong’s development as a global arts hub has primarily been driven by the commercial art sector. Hong Kong has a highly established financial and commercial infrastructure, as one of the key international financial capitals and trade capitals. Hong Kong’s liberal trade policies, free-market economy, and common law system, combined with an already well-developed trading infrastructure in terms of the transport and storage of artworks, as well as a bilingual or trilingual professional workforce composed of local and international talent, allow for easy imports into the city and favorable exports of goods, including art and antiques. Hong Kong is one of the largest importers of arts and antiques in the world, and 94% of the USD 1 billion market for art antiques in Asia (excluding mainland China) takes place in Hong Kong (
Yehuda and Xu 2021).
In particular, the emergence of Art Basel Hong Kong, the largest art fair in Asia, has proven to be a game-changer for the Hong Kong art ecosystem. In 2011, The Swiss art fair giant Art Basel’s parent group MCH bought over the city’s first large-scale modern and contemporary art fair, Art HK (established in 2008), to create Art Basel Hong Kong in 2013 as Asia’s premier art fair. In addition, Hong Kong also has several smaller art fairs, such as Art Central (established in 2015); Fine Art Asia (established in 2006); the Affordable Art Fair (established in 2012); Asia Contemporary Art Show; Unscheduled (a boutique art fair organized by Hong Kong Art Gallery Association since 2020); and the latest addition to the art fair circuit in Hong Kong, Digital Art Fair Asia (established in 2021).
Hong Kong has a mature primary art market as well, especially over the past decade, with a host of major global blue-chip galleries coming into the city as well as a number of local and regional galleries expanding their reach. All of these are tapping into an extensive collector base in Hong Kong and even more so in mainland China, as well as potentially in Singapore, Taiwan, and South Korea, which are some of the key centers of wealth in Asia along with Hong Kong. “Hong Kong is one of the most important art markets in the world because of its proximity to major and important markets: first, mainland China and second, probably Korea. Hong Kong is very close to them, tax-free, and with all its history being the point linking East and West, all of this makes logistics very convenient”, said Lihsin Tsai, Senior Director at the global mega-gallery Hauser and Wirth (
Tsai 2021). Its Hong Kong outpost, opened in 2018, is Hauser and Wirth’s first permanent gallery space in Asia. “Culturally as well, there is a richness of culture and history,” added Tsai (
Tsai 2021).
The commercial gallery scene in Hong Kong seems to be quite saturated, with a number of high-profile galleries being present in the city. However, there are a few medium- and small-sized galleries, which usually serve a vital role in the art ecology as both gatekeepers and career makers for emerging art talents, since they are where young artists are discovered and developed. “The Hong Kong Art Gallery Association started with almost 60 galleries in 2012; we now have more than 40, of which half are local branches of international galleries and the remainder would be local Hong Kong galleries”, said Henrietta Tsui-Leung (
Poposki et al. 2020), CEO and founder of Galerie Ora-Ora, who is also cofounder and President Emeritus of the Hong Kong Art Gallery Association, a member-based nonprofit organization of established art galleries in Hong Kong. The number of galleries in Hong Kong dropped even further in late 2020/early 2021 due to closures brought on by the pandemic but has since rebounded to almost 50 at the end of 2021. Hong Kong’s galleries have traditionally been located primarily in the central business district, but rising rents and the 2019 mass protests saw a departure of several galleries moving from the central area to the rapidly gentrifying southern part of the island, creating a new arts hub in the southern part of Wong Chuk Hang, the South Island Cultural District, where there are now about a dozen galleries, international as well as local. As research (
Schuetz 2014) from other locations has shown (e.g., London’s Bloomsbury and Hackney districts, Berlin’s Kreuzberg, and New York City’s SoHo and Chelsea), while art galleries themselves do not independently cause gentrification, they do nonetheless contribute to the general neighborhood redevelopment of historically poor districts of the city.
“Hong Kong’s access to mainland Chinese collectors is key, of course. However, collectors from all across Asia have traditionally flocked to see and buy art in the city. That is what makes it stand apart from competing art hubs in the region,” said Molesworth (
Molesworth 2021). Hong Kong has quite an established collector base, according to a global survey of high-net-worth (HNW) collectors in 2021. Together with Singapore and Taiwan, Hong Kong holds some of the largest shares of millionaires and billionaires in the world. In 2020, according to data from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Credit Suisse, and Forbes, Hong Kong’s share of global billionaires stood at 3%, the percentage of global ultrahigh-net-worth individuals (with wealth over USD 50 million) was at 2%, and its share of global millionaires was at 1% (
McAndrew 2021b). More than half of art collectors in Hong Kong have been collecting art for over ten years, though with smaller collections on average. They prefer decorative arts, followed by fine arts and antiques; they also prefer foreign art and artworks by living artists (
McAndrew 2020). In fact, in 2021, Hong Kong art collectors had the highest share of living artists’ works in their collections (
McAndrew 2021a). Their spending declined in 2021, mainly being in the price range of USD 100,000–250,000, and the purchasing was more frequently conducted online (through a gallery website or OVR—online viewing rooms), showing a preference for local galleries and the highest international preference for digital art (
McAndrew 2021b). In terms of the number of visitors to Hong Kong art fairs (based on reported figures in the media from 2018 as a prepandemic baseline), Art Basel attracted 80,000 visitors, Art Central 39,000, Fine Art Asia (including Ink Asia) 28,000, and Asia Contemporary Art Show had 14,400 reported visitors. These visitor figures speak to a sizeable art-consuming audience and collector base of local collectors and local audiences, as well as mainland Chinese and international collectors coming into the city, who are interested in Asian art, antiques, and, in particular, modern and contemporary fine art.
The rise of the digital art market has been one of the most significant recent developments in the Hong Kong art ecosystem, in spite of (and partially due to) the pandemic, which moved most art activity online. The emergence and rapid rise of the digital art market in Hong Kong, launched by the record-setting first nonfungible token (NFT) sale in Asia by Christie’s in 2021, have the potential to turn Hong Kong into a hub for digital art, in particular digital tokens and crypto art. Furthermore, 2021 saw the establishment of Digital Art Fair Asia, Hong Kong’s first physical and virtual art fair focused on immersive art and NFT art, welcoming 26,000 visitors. Hong Kong’s rapid rise as a digital art hub has been fueled by the above-listed factors contributing to the overall art market growth, combined with the already developed cryptocurrency market in Hong Kong, where most collectors of NFT art tend to come from at present. “Hong Kong has a unique proposition, in terms of its financial infrastructure, being a gateway to China and Asia, having the technology, having free internet, and cryptocurrency is legal and without restrictions in Hong Kong. All of this makes NFT and digital art very easy to trade in Hong Kong”, said Gillian Howard, cofounder and director of the Digital Art Fair Asia (
Howard 2022). The emerging digital art and NFT art market, with its direct-to-consumer model, brings the potential to make changes in the Hong Kong art market. Allowing artists to sell directly to the customers via NFT trading platforms, the digital art market in its current stage of development bypasses commercial galleries as traditional art market intermediaries. This could potentially open up access to the art market for both new artists and new art collectors: “In digital art, and as the trend of NFTs has shown, as long as you are talented and have the rights and means to make digital art, you can make it, and that I think will make the art scene much healthier,” Howard said. For that to happen, Hong Kong needs “more digital art and more digital artists. We also need art administrators who understand art and technology, I.P., and culture management,” she added (
Howard 2022).
However, while creating a wealth of opportunities for local actors in the art scene, the dominance of the top end of the art market in Hong Kong has also created a potentially problematic situation in terms of the long-term sustainability of Hong Kong’s art scene, since a lot of the developments in the city’s art scene and in the art world in Hong Kong have been driven by the secondary market and have been primarily fueled by commercial and financial interest. With the exception of major contemporary Chinese artists whose works are regularly exhibited at top auction houses and sold for high prices in the secondary market, for most of the contemporary art being produced and exhibited in Hong Kong, the primary place where they can be accessed by the global art world is through commercial galleries who exhibit at art fairs. In other words, the more accessible and commercial art market in Hong Kong is creating an economic incentive for artists, curators, collectors, and art professionals to engage in art practices and art production that can be exhibited and sold at commercial galleries, art fairs, and auctions.
The top-heavy art ecosystem has also been quite uneven, as it tends to favor more commercially oriented types of artistic production and consumption, thus potentially leaving out noncommercial, critical artistic practices oriented towards social practice, community art, socially engaged art, and activist art. This means that artists, curators, and art professionals who seek alternative ways of accessing art markets or producing art that do not fit into this mold or who are interested in collaborating with non-art actors and creating socially engaged art, community art, social practice art, or activist art are in this situation effectively pushed aside, as they cannot compete with commercial galleries that participate in art fairs with the same artists and works. The dominance of speculation in the art market has driven a lot of artists, curators, and art professionals towards artistic practice and art production that can potentially establish an economic value in the secondary market, with the intention that the artist’s work will be collected and thus fetch a higher price in the next auction. In the context of Hong Kong, the heavy commercialization of the art market has been pushing the local art scene towards a market-driven art ecosystem powered by speculation, financial interests, and the secondary market rather than critical, socially engaged, and politically driven practices. The dominance of commercial ambitions and the desire to attain high price tags for works in the art market has steered the art ecosystem in Hong Kong away from artistic practices that are socially, culturally, politically, and economically oriented.
The dominance of the commercial art scene in Hong Kong can be said to have led to the development of a more individualized and consumer-centric art scene. This is perhaps due to the fact that, unlike historically more established art scenes in Europe and the U.S., art in Hong Kong still largely tends to not be treated as a cultural or social capital or as an alternative space for the dissemination of countercultural ideas—instead, it is an industry, a business, or an investment. Consequently, artwork is often treated more like a luxury product, an asset, or a commodity than an object of aesthetic contemplation or social value. However, in recent years, the presence of some independent and socially engaged organizations known typically as ‘artist-run initiatives’ has begun to counteract the imbalance, as we elaborate on more in the second part of this study.
Furthermore, the dominance of the top end of the art market in Hong Kong tends to make the art system highly fragmented and uneven, with limited access to the overall art ecology. These factors have the combined effect of making the local art community very conservative and resistant to change for two reasons. First, it tends to favor wealthy art collectors as the only ones who can afford to access this top end of the art market. Second, the Hong Kong art market is driven by a speculative market that relies on the participants making a financial investment to be able to make a return of their investment, which means that there is a strong incentive for the participants in the local art market to be conservative and not take risks, for fear that their investment could disappear without any return. In addition, the dominance of the top end of the art market in Hong Kong could also pressure the local art community to be hostile towards experiments and innovation, as it is more focused on the financial market than on art itself, and its goals are to produce art for the market rather than for the sake of art.
The dominance of the top end of the art market in Hong Kong also has the potential to change the traditional roles of commercial galleries, as the art market in Hong Kong is becoming increasingly more dominated by secondary market transactions, and commercial galleries are becoming less dependent on primary market transactions. To this end, commercial galleries in Hong Kong may potentially see the number of new artists that they can bring onto the market decline as the art market becomes increasingly dominated by the secondary market.
Furthermore, Hong Kong’s top-heavy art ecology risks leaving little room for cross-fertilization between the international and the local actors in the city’s art system. “(Hong Kong’s) tax system has also created a unique art ecology where local artists and international market players and galleries have only minimally overlapped. Postpandemic, we have seen this begin to change, with several Hong-Kong-based artists now on the rise. With the opening of M+, I hope there will be a much stronger mix of these two scenes in the future”, said Molesworth.
The commercialization of art and culture in Hong Kong has created a situation where it is considered fashionable to talk about art and culture; the problem is that while art and culture increasingly receive media coverage, there has been very little room for critical art discourse or talk about the role that art and culture can play in communities or society. In addition, the dominance of the top end of the art market in Hong Kong has not only created an uneven economic system where the few art professionals and artists who can access that top end of the art market are extremely fortunate for gaining access to resources and opportunities that are not easily attainable by others; it has also created a problematic situation where artists, curators, and the general public seem to think that the market for art and culture is the only place where art and culture are happening.
The dominance of the top end of the art market in Hong Kong also potentially affects the general perception of art. For one thing, it tends to dilute the image of art and culture in Hong Kong, as it tends to bring into the art market a lot of commercial and market-driven interests, which can skew the general public’s perception of the arts in Hong Kong with the belief that art is primarily about making money and is something that involves commercial galleries and art institutions. Furthermore, the commercialization of the art world in Hong Kong also means that the art world is increasingly viewed as a venue for commercial and financial transactions, with the valuation of artworks being determined by the forces of supply and demand in the global art market that is driven by the market trends and dynamics of the global art world. Such a market-driven art economy, in conjunction with the speculative demands of the secondary market, leads to a situation where artists, curators, collectors, and art professionals tend to be more engaged in activities that can potentially secure commercial success in the art market in the long run, instead of artistic endeavors that might be more invested in critical or socially engaged practices.
The dominance of the top end of the art market in Hong Kong has also challenged the role of the art institutions in the city. The top end of the art market has created a situation where Hong Kong’s art institutions, including many museums, are the object of interest for donations from wealthy art collectors. This kind of situation has both positive and negative consequences. On the one hand, it allows art institutions to collect artworks that are not usually within their budget, as the wealthy collectors make donations of artworks that can potentially be sold for a higher price at auction, which means that Hong Kong art institutions have access to more artworks than otherwise would be the case. On the other hand, this situation has its downsides, as it can make art institutions very dependent on donations from wealthy collectors. It can also raise questions related to conflicts of interest, as the wealthy collectors can potentially use the donation of artworks to influence the management and development of art organizations in the city.
This is all to say that while the Hong Kong contemporary art scene and the art market in the city are deemed to have high potential and are gaining increasing attention from the global art world, this potential is subject to being over-determined by the dominance of the top art market players in the city, and the speculative demands of the secondary market. As a result, the art world in Hong Kong runs the risk of becoming increasingly detached from the larger ecology, becoming a self-contained and self-referential system that is largely unaware of the wider social, economic, or political context.