A Comparative Study of the Spatial Features of Chinese and Korean Academies: A Case Study of BaiLuDong Academy and Tosan Academy

Abstract

This paper presents a comparative study of the spatial characteristics of academies in China and Korea, focusing on BaiLuDong Academy in China and Tosan Academy in Korea. It examines the cultural philosophies and practical differences in the spatial expression of Confucianism between the two countries. BaiLuDong Academy embodies the Confucian ideals of simplicity and solemnity through its modest architectural style and rigorous spatial organization. The integration of mountain–water siting with enclosed courtyard arrangements reflects the Confucian scholar’s pursuit of self-cultivation and social order. In contrast, Tosan Academy, while grounded in Zhu Xi’s Neo-Confucian teachings, incorporates local architectural traditions to form a more open and flexible spatial configuration. Its emphasis on harmony with the natural environment represents a localized reinterpretation of Confucian values. As a spatial embodiment of ideology, the academy serves as a medium through which Confucian values are materialized in architectural form. The spatial characteristics of Chinese and Korean academies reveal the adaptability and evolution of Confucian thought across different cultural contexts.

1. Introduction

The academy (shuyuan, 书院) refers to a unique form of private educational and scholarly institution that emerged in feudal China, originating during the Tang Dynasty [1]. In its early stages, its primary functions included official book compilation, proofreading, collection, and publication. It was not until the Northern Song Dynasty, with the strengthening of the imperial examination system and the rise of Neo-Confucianism, that the academy gradually evolved into an institution centered on education. Neo-Confucian scholars began to lecture and write within academies, initiating a new wave of private education [2]. During the Southern Song period, leading Neo-Confucian thinkers established the tradition of integrating scholarly pursuits with the academy structure [3]. Academies played a key role in the establishment of Neo-Confucianism as the dominant ideology, actively promoting the Confucian-centered integration of Buddhist and Daoist thought, thereby further consolidating Confucianism’s cultural dominance in Chinese society. As multifunctional cultural spaces that combined education, scholarship, book collection, and ritual practices, academies transcended the limitations of the traditional state-run educational system [4]. They were defined by private instruction, open intellectual exchange, and the transmission of Confucian scholarly traditions, embedding the dual pursuit of moral self-cultivation and academic excellence within institutional mottos and educational regulations [5]. This ideal profoundly influenced the intellectual structure of Chinese scholars for centuries. Traditional Chinese academies were not only centers of learning but also embodied the physical and ideological transmission of Confucian philosophy.

Since the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), Korea adopted Neo-Confucianism from China as the core ideological framework for governance and everyday ethics while simultaneously introducing the Chinese academy (Seowon) system [6]. As a result, academies became the central institutions for Neo-Confucian education and cultural transmission in Korea, reflecting the deep absorption and localized reinterpretation of Chinese Neo-Confucian values by the Korean literati during the Joseon period. Korea’s first officially recognized academy was the Sosu Academy, established in honor of Ahn Hyang (1243–1306), a key figure who introduced Neo-Confucianism to Korea. This academy served both educational and ritual functions, marking the formal beginning of the Korean academy system [7]. Another foundational figure, Yi Hwang (1501–1570), who was profoundly influenced by Zhu Xi’s philosophy, further developed the Korean academy into a vital institution for the promotion and practice of Neo-Confucian learning [8].

Korean academies were not merely educational institutions; they also fulfilled significant social functions. These included cultivating local scholars, teaching Confucian classics, performing ancestral rites for Confucian sages and local predecessors, and preparing students for the civil service examinations. However, from the mid to late 19th century, due to socio-economic changes and the influx of Western thought, academies gradually lost their original educational and academic roles, retaining only their ritual functions and ultimately falling into decline. In July 2019, nine Neo-Confucian academies from the Joseon Dynasty were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List under the title “Seowon, Korean Neo-Confucian Academies” during the 43rd session of the World Heritage Committee held in Baku, Azerbaijan [9]. This designation drew global attention to Seowon as a distinctive type of cultural heritage space.

It is worth noting that although some Confucian educational institutions in east Asia had previously been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, they were included only as sub-components of broader heritage sites—for example, Songyang Academy under the “Historic Monuments of Dengfeng” and BaiLuDong Academy as part of “Lushan National Park”. Korea’s inscription of its Academies as Confucian educational institutions marks the first time such institutions were formally recognized as the core value of a World Heritage nomination.

Within the east Asian cultural sphere, academies functioned not only as educational institutions but also as vital centers for philosophical exchange and cross-cultural integration, particularly between China and Korea. Although Korea’s Neo-Confucian ideology and academy system were introduced from China, the long-term development of Seowon led to spatial characteristics and spatial atmospheres that differ significantly from their Chinese counterparts. How did such spatial divergence emerge? What cultural, institutional, and environmental factors contributed to these differences? And how did the two countries interpret and implement Neo-Confucian ideals through spatial practice? To address these questions, this study selects the most representative academies from China and Korea—BaiLuDong Academy and Tosan Academy—for systematic comparison and analysis. Through this comparative lens, the study aims to reveal key differences in the material spatial forms of Confucian academies and provide deeper insight into the divergent paths of Confucian cultural transmission in the two countries, as well as the practical characteristics of educational space. In addition, the findings of this study offer a valuable comparative foundation for the protection of Chinese academy heritage and future World Heritage nominations, particularly in regard to material spatial characteristics, thereby enhancing the scientific rigor of heritage justification. More importantly, this research highlights the diverse spatial expressions of Confucian culture and contributes new perspectives and approaches to the protection and study of east Asian cultural heritage.

2. Research Review and Research Subjects

2.1. Research Review

• China

The academic study of academies in China has spanned more than half a century. It is generally believed that research on academies began in the 1930s with architectural surveys conducted by scholars from the Society for the Study of Chinese Architecture. However, academic research at that time remained largely focused on discussions of the academy system. During this period, several monographs were published, including A Study of the Academy System (1929) by Zhou Chuanru, The Academy System of China (1936) by Sheng Langxi, and The Academy System of Guangdong (1939) by Liu Boji.

In the 1970s and 1980s, with the introduction of international heritage conservation policies, such as the Venice Charter and the World Heritage Convention, China began strengthening the cultural heritage protection of academies, advancing academy research into a multidisciplinary phase. Currently, academy studies encompass various fields, including history and culture (academy evolution, Confucian thought dissemination) [10], education (teaching systems, imperial examination culture) [11], economics (academy financing) [12], and architecture and spatial studies (site selection, architectural forms, landscape) [13].

The search results from the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) indicate that there are currently over 400 journal articles related to academy space, divided into two major research areas: academy architecture and academy landscape. From the perspective of spatial formation, researchers argue that the site selection and simplistic style of jing-she (a place where monks or Taoist priests reside or preach, usually a thatched hut in the mountains or forests), such as Zhu Xi’s Wuyi Jing-she, profoundly influenced the esthetic principles of academy space [14]. Additionally, the functions and layout of Buddhist temples also played a role in shaping academy spatial organization [15].

From an architectural perspective, scholars focus on how academy spaces embody Confucian cultural and ritual values. Yang Shenchu suggested that the rigorous spatial organization of academies reflects the political mission and bureaucratic aspirations of literati [16]. Wan Shuyuan proposed that academy space follows four symbolic stages—preparation, entrance, instruction, and veneration—reinforcing Confucian ethics and ritualistic order [17]. Studies also highlight how academy architecture incorporated both official architectural styles and folk storytelling elements over time [18,19].

From a landscape perspective, scholars argue that academy landscape design reflects Confucian ecological philosophy, using site selection, ritual spaces, and symbolic plant arrangements to foster moral cultivation and social education [20,21,22]. Additionally, the World Heritage nomination of academies has become a research focus, with scholars examining how Yuelu Academy and BaiLuDong Academy align with World Heritage criteria and how international conservation practices can inform their preservation efforts [23,24].

2.

Korea

Research on Korean academies primarily focuses on Confucianism studies [25], historical research [26], preservation and development [27], and architectural studies. Unlike in China, where academy-related research spans multiple disciplines, Korean research predominantly concentrates on academy architecture. The most representative work in this field is by architect Lee Sang-hae, whose book explores the close relationship between Neo-Confucian cosmology and the architectural design of Korean academies [28].

Based on academic journal analyses, research on Korean academy architecture can generally be categorized into several types. One type of study focuses on the relationship between academy architecture, social culture, and Confucian ideology, summarizing the functions and characteristics of academies. These studies typically examine academies from specific historical periods or multiple timeframes, analyzing architectural forms, spatial layouts, and functional configurations to reveal how academy architecture reflects the socio-cultural context and value orientation of different eras [29,30,31]. Regarding Tosan Academy, most research has focused on the philosophy of its founder, Yi Hwang [32]. However, some architectural studies exist, such as Choi Jong-Hyun’s analysis of Tosan Academy’s architectural layout and site selection to explore Yi Hwang’s perspective on nature [33]. Hwang Byeong-gi examined the significance of the construction of Tosan Lecture Hall [34].

Another category of research focuses on specialized studies, e.g., studies on specific buildings within academies, such as lecture halls and pavilions [35,36]. Notably, pavilion-style buildings designed for scenic viewing, which are present in Korean academies, do not appear in Chinese academies. Studies have also been conducted on geomantic site selection (pungsu, 风水) in academies. The feng shui layout of academies was not only intended to address practical architectural and environmental concerns but also played a crucial role in moral and spiritual education [37]. It is worth noting that studies on decorative patterns and plant arrangements in Joseon-era academies remain relatively scarce.

3.

Research Gap

In recent years, comparative studies on Chinese and Korean academies have gradually emerged, covering various aspects, such as historical evolution, cultural attributes, and educational systems. However, comparative research on the spatial layout, landscape design, and other physical aspects of academies remains insufficiently explored, and studies specifically focusing on decorative patterns are currently absent.

A deeper comparative analysis of the spatial layout, landscape design, and decorative patterns of Chinese and Korean academies will help clarify the similarities and differences in their physical environments, further revealing their underlying cultural logic and regional adaptations. In particular, research on decorative patterns will not only enrich the architectural study of academies but also provide empirical support for the restoration, preservation, and World Heritage nomination of Chinese academies, thereby promoting more scientific cultural heritage management.

2.2. Research Subjects

• China’s BaiLuDong Academy

The history of BaiLuDong Academy dates back to 785 AD during the Tang Dynasty, when Li Bo and Li She, renowned poets and officials from Luoyang, chose this location for secluded study [38]. In 940, officials of the Southern Tang established farmland at BaiLu Cave for academic purposes. During the early Northern Song period (960 AD), BaiLuDong Academy was formally established, becoming one of the four most influential academies of the Northern Song Dynasty. However, in 1054, parts of the academy were destroyed due to war, leading to a period of decline. In 1179, Zhu Xi, a foundational figure in Neo-Confucianism, led the reconstruction of BaiLuDong Academy, redefining its layout and core architecture, developing a structured curriculum, formulating academic regulations, and compiling a library, elevating the academy to its peak period of influence [39]. By the late 19th century, the academy ceased its traditional functions and was converted into a modern school before eventually being abandoned. Thus, BaiLuDong Academy’s millennium-long role as a center for Confucian learning and scholarly gatherings came to an end. In 1996, UNESCO designated Lushan as a World Cultural Heritage site, with BaiLuDong Academy as an integral component. ICOMOS recognized the academy as a site of exceptional cultural value, serving as a tangible representation of Neo-Confucian philosophy and a key factor in Lushan’s inclusion on the World Heritage List [40].

2.

Tosan Academy in Korea

Confucianism was introduced to Silla (57 BCE–935 CE) in its early period. During the late Goryeo Dynasty, the renowned Confucian scholar An Hyang first encountered the works of Zhu Xi, bringing Neo-Confucian thought into Korea [41]. The formation of the Korean academy system was significantly influenced by Zhu Xi’s academy culture, particularly his “BaLuDong Academy Maxims” for BaiLuDong Academy. Yi Hwang, a leading Neo-Confucian scholar of the Joseon period, incorporated this into his “Ten Diagrams on Sage Learning” (fifth diagram), furthering the localization of the academy system in Korea [42].

Yi Hwang not only directly referenced Zhu Xi’s doctrines but also implemented Zhu Xi’s concept of “learning through immersion in nature” in the planning of Tosan Academy, integrating its site selection with the natural landscape. Tosan Study Hall and Gwanranheon (now part of Tosan Academy) were personally designed by Yi Hwang [43]. The “Wolleokjae” (Hall of Joyful Learning) in Tosan Study Hall was directly inspired by Zhu Xi’s “Mingtang Room Record” [44]. The academy system, educational philosophy, and architectural concept of Tosan Academy were deeply influenced by Zhu Xi and BaiLuDong Academy.

In 1576, the rest of the academy’s buildings were constructed by Yi Hwang’s disciples. In 1575, King Seonjo personally bestowed the name “Tosan Academy”, granting it official royal recognition [45]. In 2019, Tosan Academy, as one of Korea’s Neo-Confucian academies, was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage site by the World Heritage Committee. As stated in the ICOMOS evaluation report on Korean Neo-Confucian academies, “The seowon illustrate an historical process in which Neo-Confucianism from China was tailored to Korean local conditions resulting in academies which are exceptional testimony of this transformative and localising process in terms of function, planning and architecture” (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1498, accessed on 20 January 2025). For the convenience of discussion, this study uniformly refers to “Seowon” as “Academy”.

BaiLuDong Academy and Tosan Academy share high comparability in historical significance, intellectual heritage, architectural form, and spatial organization. Both academies were shaped by Zhu Xi’s philosophy; yet, their spatial characteristics diverged due to regional and cultural differences. Although both academies have undergone multiple renovations, their core layout and ideological expression remain faithful to their original scholarly traditions. Therefore, selecting these two academies for comparative study is not only justified but also valuable for exploring the materialization of Confucian thought in different cultural contexts.

3. Materials and Methods

This study adopts a cross-cultural spatial comparative approach, focusing on two representative academies—BaiLuDong Academy in China and Tosan Academy in Korea—to explore the connections and divergences between spatial form and cultural expression under the influence of Confucian ideology. The research methodology is structured into three main levels.

Field Investigation: Multiple on-site visits were conducted to academies across both China and Korea. Through direct observation, photographic documentation, and architectural surveying, spatial data were collected. The fieldwork focused on architectural structures, spatial layouts, landscape relationships, and decorative details, providing an intuitive foundation for subsequent cultural analysis.

Literature Review and Historical Image Analysis: A wide range of historical documents and modern research related to academy institutions and architectural culture in both countries were collected and reviewed. For China, the key sources included classical texts and paintings, such as Records of Academies from the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties, Jiangxi Gazetteer, and Gazetteer of BaiLuDong Academy. For Korea, the data were primarily obtained from national heritage portals, as well as sources such as The Annals of Korean Seowon and The Cultural Heritage Report of Andong. Specific historical sources referenced in this article are listed in the following

Table 1. User’s guide to ancient resources.

Data Source	Edition	Year
Chinese Text Project	Newly Revised BaiLuDong Academy Gazetteer	1592
Online	Jiangxi Gazetteer	1732
Book	Xingzi County Gazetteer	1990
Chinese Text Project	BaiLuDong Academy Ancient Gazetteer	Qing
Book	Five Types of BaiLuDong Academy Gazetteers	1995
Yeungnam University Institute of Ethnic Culture	Tosan Academy Architectural Survey Report	1991
Kyemyung University Tosan Library	Collected Writings of Toegye	1600
World Heritage Integrated Management Center for Korean Seowon	Master’s Handwritten Notes	1550–1570
Kansong Museum of Art	Tosan Academy Map	1735

.

Cross-Cultural and Case-Comparative Research: This study employs a case comparison method, using BaiLuDong Academy and Tosan Academy as representative examples, to explore how academy spatial design evolved under different socio-cultural contexts and how it reflects the localized interpretation of Confucian values. Special attention is given to differences and similarities in “spatial order, cultural function, and symbolic expression”, aiming to reveal how space functions as a mechanism for carrying, translating, and visualizing Confucian ideology.

Although this research adopts a typical case-comparative approach, it is grounded in systematic literature review and field investigation, and it incorporates comparative analysis of prior studies on the spatial features of various Chinese and Korean academies. The analysis draws extensively on official heritage documentation and first-hand field survey images to ensure that interpretations of physical space are structurally grounded, comparable, and verifiable. This study emphasizes the profound connection between cultural values and material space, positioning architectural space as a critical medium through which cultural thought becomes “visualized” and “materialized”.

4. Comparative Analysis of Chinese and Korean Academies

4.1. The Site Selection of Academies—The Unique Ecological Wisdom of East Asian Confucianism

4.1.1. To Express One’s Emotions Through Mountains and Rivers

• BaiLuDong Academy

The siting practices of academies embody the profound understanding of the relationship between humans and nature in east Asian Confucian civilization. The ancient Chinese approach to reading was more akin to the spiritual practice of Buddhist monks. Consequently, the siting of Chinese academies generally followed two key principles: Tranquility—to provide a peaceful environment away from the hustle and bustle of city life, allowing scholars to focus on their studies; Cultural and Natural Harmony—to foster moral cultivation and the development of a virtuous character in a setting rich in both cultural heritage and natural beauty [46]. Traditional Chinese academies were often situated amid mountains and rivers. Notable examples include the Four Great Academies of ancient China: Yuelu Academy in Hunan, BaiLuDong Academy in Jiangxi, Songyang Academy in Henan, and Shigu Academy in Hunan. Beyond esthetic considerations, several additional factors influenced the preference for such locations: Avoiding Warfare and Destruction—mountainous regions often provided a safer refuge during periods of conflict; Religious and Ideological Considerations—as famous mountains often housed Buddhist temples, establishing academies nearby symbolized a form of ideological counterbalance [47]; Feng Shui Principles—the belief in geomantic theories also played a role in determining ideal locations for academies.

However, this site selection principle did not persist throughout history. During the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, as academies were incorporated into the official education system, the government prioritized easier administration by locating academies mainly in suburban areas with convenient transportation or within cities in scenic locations (such as the Donglin Academy and Guanzhong Academy in the Ming Dynasty). In the Qing Dynasty, as the integration of academies into the official education system deepened, the government further emphasized control and convenience for examinations. Consequently, many academies were either relocated or newly built within urban areas, gradually replacing the traditional practice of establishing academies in mountain and river landscapes with the emergence of urban academies [48].

The BaiLuDong Academy has a long history and is located in the renowned Lushan scenic area, aligning with the original Confucian ideal of an academy environment (Figure 1a). Situated on the southeastern side of Mount Lushan in Jiujiang, Jiangxi Province (Figure 1b), China, the academy lies at the foot of Wulao Peak at an altitude of 213 m. The site is surrounded by mountains on all sides (Figure 1c), approximately 9 km from Poyang Lake and about 39.5 km from Jiujiang City (50 km by road). The academy complex is positioned in a valley flatland between two mountains. From the Pailou (now located near the main road) to the academy’s main gate, visitors must walk along a mountain path for 35–40 min. This path is lined with lush trees and filled with the sounds of cicadas and birds, creating a tranquil environment away from crowds and noise, fostering a peaceful academic atmosphere. In front of the academy, a stream known as “Guandao Creek” flows by. North of the creek lies the academy complex, while to the south are ancient cliff carvings and other historical relics. Since ancient times, Mount Lushan has been a favored retreat for scholars and poets seeking solitude [49]. It is also a renowned site for both Buddhist and Daoist cultures. The BaiLuDong Academy stands in harmony with the Buddhist and Daoist heritage of Mount Lushan, forming a cultural landscape where Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism coexist, blending into a valuable and representative part of China’s cultural heritage.

2.

Tosan Academy

A defining characteristic of Joseon-era academies was that they served both as places of learning and as secluded retreats for teachers and students to cultivate their moral character [50]. Scholars engaged in self-cultivation in nature while seeking to comprehend the cosmic order. Zhu Xi established the academy site selection model of being nestled between mountains and water at BaiLuDong Academy and Wuyi Jing-she. This idea profoundly influenced Yi Hwang, who developed his own “Theory of Enjoying Mountains and Waters” based on Zhu Xi’s teachings [51]. Yi Hwang stressed that appreciating natural landscapes nurtures one’s innate character and that mountains and forests help scholars focus on learning. Following his retirement from government service, he chose a remote mountainous location in Andong, North Gyeongsang Province, to establish Tosan Academy (Figure 1d). Compared to BaiLuDong Academy, however, Tosan Academy was even more secluded, located deep within the mountains (Figure 1e).

The site selection of Tosan Academy reflects the direct influence of Chinese academies. The academy is backed by Mount Lingzhi (elevation 443.9 m), surrounded by lush forests and continuous mountain ranges. In front of the academy, the Andong Lake and the Nakdong River form a harmonious landscape of mountains and water (Figure 1f), closely aligning with the site selection principles of BaiLuDong Academy in China. Inspired by this natural scenery, Yi Hwang composed “Twelve Songs of Tosan Miscellaneous Verses”, modeled after Zhu Xi’s “Nine Bends Boat Song” [52]. Yi Hwang’s academy layout philosophy quickly gained influence among Joseon’s Confucian scholars. By the 16th century, political turmoil in Joseon led many scholars to be expelled from government service, forcing them to retreat to rural areas [53]. In this context, academies were established in rural areas by elite local Confucian scholars. Against this backdrop, Tosan Academy’s site selection model became the standard for later academies. Consequently, Joseon academies were generally established in remote, mountainous areas, ensuring both the safety of Sarim scholars and the expression of their ideals of seclusion and reverence for nature.

Both Chinese and Korean academies reflect a Confucian spatial philosophy grounded in the spiritual significance of landscape, embodying a shared east Asian understanding of the relationship between nature, morality, and self-cultivation while also expressing distinct regional interpretations. The site selection of the Tosan Academy in particular demonstrates the Korean scholars’ deep reverence for and continuation of Zhu Xi’s Neo-Confucianism. Its placement amid mountains and water not only embodies esthetic appreciation of nature but also serves as a spatial manifestation of moral philosophy in practice.

4.1.2. Feng Shui Treasures

• China’s BaiLuDong Academy

The site selection of academies was deeply influenced by feng shui principles. As an ancient Chinese environmental philosophy and geographical concept, feng shui emphasizes harmonious coexistence between humans and nature, aiming to enhance the auspiciousness and positive energy of a place. The location of BaiLuDong Academy aligns closely with feng shui site selection principles. The academy benefits from the protective support of Mount Wulao (1359 m), which serves as a strong “backing mountain”. To the left, a mountain ridge rises 292 m, while to the right, another ridge stands at 234 m, creating a balanced and enclosed spatial configuration. In front of the academy, a stream and the distant Poyang Lake symbolize the flow of wealth and prosperity, reinforcing the feng shui ideal of embracing landscapes for optimal energy circulation (Figure 1c).

Various historical records of BaiLuDong Academy mention numerous feng shui elements associated with its site selection [54], including the surrounding mountains, front-facing hills, and streams. Together, these features create a layered and inseparable impression of feng shui principles in the academy’s site selection. Ancient scholars, when constructing an academy, not only analyzed the topography of mountains and rivers but also carefully considered wind direction, sunlight exposure, and spatial orientation to ensure an environment conducive to producing outstanding scholars [55]. Although constrained by the knowledge of their time, such practices reflect a fundamental yet sophisticated architectural philosophy embedded in ancient Chinese construction methods.

To scientifically assess the impact of BaiLuDong Academy’s feng shui model on building ventilation, Zhao Zhiqing’s research team at Nanchang University conducted a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation of the wind environment, supplemented by on-site measurements and empirical data [56]. Their findings confirmed that the mountain-surrounded, water-embracing feng shui layout created larger areas with optimal wind speed, enhancing thermal comfort for the academy’s occupants. This study empirically validates that feng-shui-based site selection can effectively improve human living conditions.

2.

Tosan Academy in Korea

The location of Korean academies also follows the basic feng shui principle of “relying on the mountain and near the water”. Tosan Academy is primarily surrounded by Tosan Mountain, with the East and West Cui Ping Mountains surrounding it. In front of the academy are the Andong Lake and the Nakdong River, with the layout resembling the center of a flower bud (Figure 1f). Within this spatial configuration, the academy not only benefits from a relatively enclosed environment but also achieves effective wind protection and energy accumulation, aligning with traditional feng shui principles [57]. Lee Hwang, the scholar of the Toegye school, also mentioned the feng shui of Tosan Academy in his Tosan Jayeong. The location of Tosan is well balanced, with the surrounding mountains and valleys seemingly offering a gesture of respect to Tosan, presenting an ideal feng shui ambiance. The Tosan Study Hall is located in the optimal feng shui position, surrounded by the water flow created by the mountains on both sides [58]. The geographical environment of Tosan Academy is not extremely rugged or steep; rather, its moderate and stable location aligns more closely with the Confucian ideal of tranquility and self-cultivation, embodying the academy’s emphasis on serene refinement and the pursuit of wisdom.

Additionally, unlike Chinese academies, Korean academies are typically located on sloping land rather than flat areas within the mountains. Sloped land provides a wider view, symbolizing “control” over the surrounding environment and implying good fortune and deep blessings for the students.

4.1.3. Unity of Nature and Humanity

The “Theory of All Things Containing Life” in the I Ching (which suggests that all things in the world contain a continuous, life-giving energy) became the most profound concept influencing the Neo-Confucian view of nature in the early Northern Song Dynasty [59]. This idea provided Neo-Confucians with a dynamic view of the universe, leading them to believe that all things in heaven and earth emerge naturally and that humans and nature are one. It also links human moral cultivation with the laws of nature, which embodies the uniquely Eastern concept of the “unity of heaven and humanity”. Neo-Confucianism connects various natural forms, such as the earth, mountains, rivers, animals, and plants, to the noble virtues esteemed in Confucianism, emphasizing their intrinsic value. For example, mountains symbolize the steadfast will of a gentleman; water represents a broad and tolerant mind; and bamboo signifies the upright and unyielding character of a nobleman. Moreover, classic Confucian texts, such as the Zhou Li (Rites of Zhou), Yi Ji (Records of Etiquette), Li Ji (Book of Rites), and Chun Qiu (Spring and Autumn Annals), all advocate for the protection and respectful treatment of rivers, mountains, land, plants, and animals [60]. In the site selection of academies in both China and Korea, great emphasis was placed on the educational role of the natural landscape, constructing a Confucian concept of ecological harmony that embodies the unity of heaven and humanity, with mountains and rivers symbolizing moral virtues.

4.2. The Architectural Space of Academies—A Physical Manifestation of Confucian Ritual Thought

• China’s BaiLuDong Academy

The primary functions of BaiLuDong Academy are teaching, book collection, and ancestral worship, and its architectural planning revolves around these three main purposes (Figure 2b). The academy covers an area of over 3000 mu, with approximately 3800 m² of preserved Ming and Qing Dynasty buildings (Figure 2a). Due to topographical constraints, the layout consists of five parallel multi-courtyard complexes (Figure 2a). Each courtyard follows a two-entry design: the first entry is the ceremonial gate, and the second entry serves as the main building of the courtyard, with stele corridors or walkways connecting the eastern and western wings. From left to right, the five parallel courtyards are the Xianxian Academy, the Hall of Worshipping the Sages (Lisheng Hall), BaiLuDong Academy, Ziyang Academy, and Yanbin Hall (Figure 2c). Each space carries specific Confucian educational and ritual significance. The architectural forms within the academy adhere to the ancient hierarchical order. The most significant building, Lisheng Hall, adopts a double-eave hip-and-gable roof with nine ridges, while the Imperial Book Pavilion features a hip-and-gable roof. Other buildings generally use a hard-slope roof.

Lisheng Hall, also known as the Confucian Temple complex, functions as a site for worshipping Confucius and his disciples. This complex covers 1608 m² and is arranged sequentially with a memorial archway (Lingxing Gate), a pond (Pan Pond), and the Zhuangyuan Bridge, followed by Lisheng Gate, and finally, Lisheng Hall (Figure 2d). During the academy’s enrollment ceremony, new students were required to visit Lisheng Hall to pay homage to Confucius, an essential part of the ancient admission ritual that reinforced the organization of Confucian moral teachings [61,62]. Aside from the entrance ceremony, daily lectures at the BaiLuDong Academy were also preceded by a formal ritual. “Before the lecture began, the Head or Vice Lecturer would lead all the teachers and students to the Hall of Confucian Saints to perform four bows to the ancient sages and masters, and only then would they enter the lecture hall… [63]”. This ritual spatially evoked the Confucian scholars’ sense of identity and spiritually reinforced their reverence for and belonging to the culture of the sages. Lisheng Hall was originally proposed by Zhu Xi during the Southern Song period and was reconstructed in 1438 [64]. The structure stands on a high platform and is designed in a palace style, measuring 18.4 m in length, 14.4 m in width, and 12.4 m in height, with surrounding corridors supported by 20 large wooden columns (Figure 2d). However, unlike the typical Dacheng Halls found in most Confucian temples, Lisheng Hall features gray tiles and white walls, which lend a sense of calm and dignity to the otherwise grand and solemn building, allowing it to harmonize seamlessly with the surrounding architectural environment (Figure 2d).

Adjacent to the Lisheng Hall courtyard is the BaiLuDong Academy complex, designated for book storage and lectures, situated at the center of the entire academy layout. The lecture hall (Figure 2e), known as Minglun Hall, measures 15.8 m in length, 10.1 m in width, and 6.6 m in height. It adopts a traditional column-and-tie wooden structure, accommodating a large number of students for simultaneous study and lectures. In front of the lecture hall stands a two-story pavilion-style library (Figure 2f), which houses books bestowed by Emperor Kangxi during the Qing Dynasty [65], signifying the official recognition of BaiLuDong Academy by the imperial ruling class. Behind the lecture hall are Bailu Cave and Sixian Platform. Bailu Cave is an arched cave, 4 m high, featuring a stone-carved deer from the Ming Dynasty (1535) and a stone stele from the Qing Dynasty (1531) [66]. Sixian Platform is located above Bailu Cave and marks the highest point of the entire academy, offering a panoramic view of the complex. The fourth axial line, consisting of the Ziyang Academy complex, and the fifth axial line, consisting of the Yanbin Hall complex, served historically as venues for receiving officials, conducting academic discussions, and housing student dormitories. Within the Yanbin Hall complex, there is the Chunfeng Tower, originally built during the Southern Song Dynasty for accommodating guests (Figure 2g), as well as a two-story Gothic-style Western building (Higher Forestry Academy) constructed in 1925, which was later used as an office and hospital (Figure 2h). The overall architectural ensemble along the Yanbin Hall axis meets the criteria of World Cultural Heritage Standard (iv), as it reflects the architectural evolution and functional transformation of traditional Chinese academies across different historical periods. It vividly demonstrates the adaptability of academy architecture to social change and possesses significant value for cultural heritage preservation.

The site selection of the academy reflects the Confucian concept of the relationship between humans and nature, while the architectural layout embodies the relationship between individuals within society. As a significant educational institution, BaiLuDong Academy played a crucial role in the dissemination and instruction of Confucianism. By constructing a solemn and sacred axial spatial layout, the academy enhanced the experience of moral cultivation. The sense of order conveyed through the arrangement of the architectural complex reflects the Chinese cultural spirit of “ritual–order–reverence”, underscoring the collective value orientation of actively pursuing officialdom. Existing quantitative studies have also demonstrated, through spatial configuration diagrams, the high complexity and functional integration of the spatial structure of BaiLuDong Academy, revealing a unity between ritual order and spatial efficiency [67].

2.

Tosan Academy in Korea

Tosan Academy in Korea covers an area of 506,355 m² and can be divided into three functional zones: lecture space, ritual space, and auxiliary space (Figure 3b). Unlike the strict axial layout commonly seen in Chinese academies, Tosan Academy lacks a unified axis (Figure 3c). Instead, its buildings are arranged in a staggered pattern following the natural mountain terrain, creating a flexible spatial layout distinct from Chinese academies. The main entrance of Tosan Academy faces the Nakdong River, forming a layout of “water at the front and mountains as the backdrop”. This integration of natural scenery with cultural architecture creates a harmonious atmosphere that blends with nature. The development of Tosan Academy’s layout can be divided into two stages (Figure 3a).

First Stage: Architectural Design Led by Yi Hwang. The earliest buildings of Tosan Academy were personally designed and supervised by Yi Hwang, mainly located in the lower half of the academy’s terrain. This phase includes Tosan Lecture Hall and Nongun Study Hall. Tosan Lecture Hall is the oldest building in Tosan Academy, enclosed by courtyard walls and characterized by a simple and unadorned style (Figure 3c). The construction of the lecture hall was carried out by monks, giving it a minimalist and unembellished appearance. The lecture hall features a front façade with four bays and one bay on the side, constructed with a three-beam frame and a hard-slope roof (hyeonsan roof). The two enclosed rooms on the left serve as residential and living quarters for the instructors, equipped with traditional heated floors (ondol), while the two open rooms on the right are used for teaching purposes (Figure 3d), with wooden flooring. The lecture hall adopts an open and transparent spatial layout, forming a stark contrast with the relatively enclosed lecture hall space of BaiLuDong Academy. The design of Korean academy lecture halls aims to create a boundaryless, open environment that integrates closely with nature. Furthermore, the architectural approach continues the traditional Korean techniques of thermal regulation, including ondol heating and elevated wooden platforms—elements that were included as part of the designated heritage assets in Korea’s World Heritage nomination for academies.

Nongun Study Hall is located on the left side of the academy and follows a “工”-shaped layout (Figure 3e). It served as a residence and a place for students to engage in academic discussions and was completed in 1661 [68]. This space also embodies a simple and modest design. In these buildings, Yi Hwang strictly controlled the scale of the structures, chose plain materials, and avoided excessive decoration, reflecting his adherence to the value of simplicity. This design philosophy resonates with Zhu Xi’s advocacy for restrained architectural styles in academies, showcasing a shared architectural perspective between the two New-Confucian masters.

Second Stage: The remaining buildings of Tosan Academy were constructed by Yi Hwang’s disciples to commemorate him. These structures are situated in the middle and rear sections of the academy, where the terrain is higher. The later buildings exhibit a different appearance and layout compared to the earlier ones. The lecture space adopts a symmetrical courtyard layout composed of the Jeonggyotang (Lecture Hall), student quarters, and a library complex (Figure 3f), resembling the courtyard style of Chinese academies. The main building, the Jeonggyotang, measures 9.96 m in length and 5 m in width. The leftmost room features a traditional ondol (heated floor system), serving as the teacher’s office and residence. The three open halls on the right side are designated for lectures (Figure 3g). The entire structure is built on an elevated platform, offering a commanding view of the academy grounds.

Both the student quarters and the library are arranged symmetrically, with two identical buildings on either side. Unlike the spatial arrangement of the dormitories (Zhaishe) in Chinese academies, where student quarters are typically set apart from the lecture hall and arranged longitudinally in multiple units depending on the overall scale of the academy, the dormitories in Korean academies are located adjacent to the lecture hall. The library, though designed as a two-story pavilion, is relatively modest in size and height, with the first floor left open and the second floor used for book storage. In contrast to the grand and monumental library pavilions found in Chinese academies, Korean academies focus more on practical functionality and the technical preservation of books.

The shrine dedicated to Yi Hwang and other renowned Confucian scholars is situated at the highest point of the academy (Figure 3h). It is enclosed by walls and forms an independent courtyard. The main gate of the shrine courtyard, also known as the “Spirit Gate”, features a painted Taiji (Yin-Yang) symbol and conveys a solemn atmosphere (Figure 3i). The shrine has three doors: the central one remains permanently closed, while the side doors are used for the movement of ritual offerings. This spatial arrangement underscores the central role of ritual in Korean academies and contrasts with the Chinese academy tradition, where teaching and ritual often hold equal importance. Existing studies have pointed out that education in Korean academies during the Joseon Dynasty was grounded in reverence for the sages and the transmission of their teachings to students—two foundational pillars of Confucian learning in Korea [69].

Unlike Chinese academies, which primarily venerate Confucius, Korean academies typically enshrine local Confucian scholars as the main figures of worship (Byeongsan Academy enshrines Ryu Seong-ryong, while Oksan Academy is dedicated to Lee Eon-jeok). This practice reflects the stronger emphasis of Joseon-era academies on regional cultural identity and the localized transmission of Confucian traditions.

Overall, the architectural layouts of Tosan Academy and BaiLuDong Academy reflect both shared spatial concepts and distinct cultural orientations between Chinese and Korean academies. Both institutions emphasize Confucian ideals of social hierarchy and ritual propriety through their use of gates, walls, and courtyard-based architectural forms. However, BaiLuDong Academy demonstrates a stronger emphasis on clearly defined functional divisions, symmetrical axial layouts, and a series of enclosed courtyards. The use of high walls and large-scale structures helps create a solemn and disciplined academic environment, supporting strict institutional management and reinforcing the normative structure of Chinese scholarship and Confucian rituals.

In contrast, Korean academies, including Tosan Academy, exhibit greater flexibility and informality in their spatial organization. Due to the relatively less competitive nature of the Korean civil service examination system and the smaller scale of the academies, educational activities in Korea retained a higher degree of freedom. Tosan Academy adapts to the sloping terrain by arranging buildings in a staggered layout without a singular axial alignment. Its spatial configuration is more integrated and compact, fostering a stronger sense of community among scholars. Despite the greater spatial openness, the prominent placement of the shrine space emphasizes the Confucian tradition of ancestor veneration and reverence for teachers.

Furthermore, the spatial layout of Tosan Academy evolved from the frugal and modest structures of Yi Hwang’s time toward a more ritualized form in later generations. This transformation reflects how Korean academies selectively adopted and adapted the axial spatial models of Chinese academies. As representative examples such as Tosan, Yusan, and Byeongsan Academies developed, a distinct Korean model emerged (Figure 4), characterized by (1) multiple non-parallel axes, (2) multi-courtyard arrangements aligned with topographical conditions, and (3) the “lecture in front, shrine behind” layout. These UNESCO-listed academies collectively illustrate the shared institutional principles of Korean Seowon while also showcasing their regionally adaptive and context-sensitive architectural ingenuity.

4.3. The Landscape of the Academy—Confucian Concept of Natural Ecology

4.3.1. Landscape Spatial Morphological Characteristics

The term “landscape” generally refers to the natural or man-made scenery within a certain area, but its meaning extends beyond visual perception; it also encompasses a cognitive space rich in cultural significance. In Confucian philosophy, the concept of “finding joy in mountains and rivers” (Confucius’s saying “Enjoying mountains and enjoying water” (Le shan le shui) is a classic expression of Confucian thought. Flowing water, ever-changing and ceaseless, symbolizes the agile mind and adaptability of a wise person (zhizhe); towering mountains, majestic and unmoving, represent the inner strength, stability, and enduring virtue of a benevolent person (renzhe). Through the contrast between mountains and water, Confucianism illustrates the distinct temperaments and spiritual realms of wisdom and benevolence) reflects the idea of harmonious coexistence between humans and nature. It implies that personal moral cultivation can be achieved through interaction with the natural environment, highlighting nature’s role in the moral and intellectual development of individuals. Accordingly, within the Confucian educational system, the academy’s surroundings are regarded as vital settings for character development, serving as a medium for culturally interpreting the objective world. Through the contrast between mountains and water, Confucianism conveys distinct moral temperaments and spiritual ideals, advocating self-cultivation through interaction with the natural world and emphasizing the educative role of the environment.

As such, within the Confucian educational framework, the academy’s surroundings are not merely esthetic settings but essential environments for nurturing moral character. They serve as a means of culturally interpreting the external world. Chinese academies in particular emphasize the “cultural transformation” of natural landscapes to serve educational purposes. The orderly design of internal landscapes reflects the Confucian emphasis on propriety and hierarchy, while the natural scenery beyond the academy walls conveys a sense of harmony with nature. Together, these elements manifest the Confucian synthesis of ritual and music, forming a holistic spatial expression of Confucian ideals within academy environments.

In the landscape design of Chinese academies, both the external natural scenery and the internal structured landscape are integral parts. The organized internal landscape reflects the Confucian values of “reverence for ritual and respect for order”, while the external natural scenery embodies the principle of “conforming to nature”. Together, these elements express the Confucian ideal of “the harmony of rites and music”, forming a complete spatial expression of Confucian academies. The academy layout typically consists of multiple courtyards arranged longitudinally in a series, following the siheyuan (courtyard house) form. These courtyards are often enclosed by high walls, creating a closed internal space (Figure 5c). This enclosed courtyard structure ensures a clear division of functional areas, reinforcing the academy’s sense of order and ritual. The enclosed layout not only isolates noise, allowing students to focus on their studies, but it also enhances the acoustic environment for lectures. The enclosed courtyard form in academy architecture is not merely a functional choice but also a material expression of cultural ideals.

In BaiLuDong Academy, this artificially constructed natural landscape is incorporated into the overall axial organization and hierarchical system. The symmetrical green spaces are carefully designed to cultivate a scholarly atmosphere, emphasizing spatial order and harmony (Figure 5a,b). The courtyard is divided into two symmetrical lawns by a central path, with plants arranged symmetrically on either side. Ceremonial landscape elements, such as pailou (archways), pavilions, and statues, are aligned along the central axis (Figure 5d), together forming a unified and harmonious Confucian cultural space. The layered composition of the courtyard landscape further enhances spatial depth, visually extending the otherwise enclosed space and softening its sense of confinement. Additionally, during the Southern Song period, the academy actively promoted huijiang (collective lectures or academic symposiums), which encouraged scholarly debate and mutual exchange. The courtyard thus served as the primary space for these open academic activities (Figure 5e).

The distinctive exterior landscape of BaiLuDong Academy is closely integrated with the natural setting of Mount Lushan. Surrounded by undulating mountains, a gentle stream flows in front of the academy, and dense woodlands create a serene environment—one that sharply contrasts with the orderly and minimalist landscape design within the academy walls. This openness and natural quality of the outer landscape reflect the Confucian respect for natural order. On the cliffs behind the academy, numerous rock inscriptions (moya shike) can be found (Figure 5f), many of which were created by prominent figures, such as Zhu Xi and Wang Xizhi [70]. These poetic inscriptions and calligraphic carvings embedded in the mountainscape express specific values through a cultural practice that bridges humanity and nature. In sum, the landscape of BaiLuDong Academy constitutes a layered cultural space, where scholars, nature, history, and memory converge.

In its evaluation of the Outstanding Universal Value of Korean Neo-Confucian academies, UNESCO emphasized the harmonious relationship between the academies’ natural surroundings—typically nestled between mountains and rivers—and their open architectural forms. This integration not only allows scholars to appreciate nature within the learning environment but also transforms the academy space into a “place of quiet cultivation”, where ideal Neo-Confucian character development can occur. Within this conceptual framework, Korean academies are understood as symbolic, physical embodiments of the Neo-Confucian worldview of the unity between heaven and humanity.

Tosan Academy is a representative example of this philosophical ideal. Its founder, Yi Hwang, considered “observing nature” a crucial component of both moral cultivation and educational practice [71]. He purposefully sited the lecture hall to face the most scenic views of the river, thereby extending the built space into the natural world. Although the lecture hall is enclosed by walls and terrain, its relatively low boundary walls create an open spatial atmosphere, enabling unobstructed views of the lake and surrounding mountains from within the courtyard (Figure 6a). A particularly illustrative example can be found in the Gwanran Pavilion of Nongun Study Hall, where a window opens directly onto the landscape, demonstrating how Yi Hwang incorporated external scenery as a spatial and philosophical extension of the academy (Figure 6b,c). This approach reflects the distinctive openness of Korean academy landscapes and the unique ways in which they merge architecture with nature under Neo-Confucian ideals.

This design philosophy significantly influenced later academy builders, who continued to prioritize visual openness and scenic accessibility even as they expanded the academies’ functional spaces. The Jeonggyotang, constructed at a higher elevation than the original buildings founded by Yi Hwang, offers views that extend both toward the lecture hall built by Yi Hwang himself and beyond, toward the expansive river landscape surrounding the academy (Figure 6d). This sense of spatial permeability characterizes the entire site: the boundary walls serve more as spatial delimiters than visual barriers (Figure 6e), thereby enhancing the academy’s panoramic experience.

From within the academy grounds, landscape design is kept to a minimum—there are virtually no planted elements or ornamental features—creating an environment that is serene, meditative, and free from distraction (Figure 6e). In contrast, the external surroundings of Tosan Academy retain a strong sense of natural wilderness (Figure 6f). The unmodified terrain, dense vegetation, and unembellished natural features preserve the original character of the mountain forest, allowing the academy to appear as though it is concealed within nature. This integration embodies the Neo-Confucian ideal of “dwelling in mountains and rivers” and reflects the Korean academy’s philosophical and esthetic tendency toward harmonizing with nature and returning to authenticity.

Chinese and Korean academies were often established amid mountain forests, reflecting Neo-Confucianism’s pursuit of harmony between heaven and humanity. However, their approaches to landscape design reveal distinct differences. Chinese academies, such as BaiLuDong Academy, typically adopt enclosed courtyard layouts surrounded by high walls. These spaces feature symmetrical landscaping to create a serene atmosphere, emphasizing self-discipline and focused study. The surrounding natural scenery serves primarily as a background for spiritual adjustment. In contrast, Korean academies place greater emphasis on spatial integration with nature. Buildings are arranged according to topography, and courtyards are visually and physically connected with the landscape, allowing self-cultivation to become part of everyday life. This open spatial pattern reflects the Neo-Confucian worldview in Korea, where nature is regarded as a moral and spiritual realm for personal cultivation. This spatial typology is found in most academies from the Joseon period, with varied foregrounds featuring either water or mountain views (Figure 7). The emergence of such a unique spatial form was grounded in the Neo-Confucian worldview of Joseon scholars and embodied their vision of an ideal moral universe.

4.3.2. Water Features

In Chinese academies, it was customary to place a semicircular or rectangular Pan Pond at the entrance, serving as a symbolic marker of Confucian institutions. The Pan Pond was not part of a garden composition but rather an integral element of the entry zone. At BaiLuDong Academy, the rectangular Pan Pond measures 9.1 m in length and 4.05 m in width, symbolizing both the ancient cosmological idea of “round heaven and square earth” and the Confucian metaphor of the endless pursuit of knowledge. Lotus flowers are planted in the pond, referencing Zhou Dunyi’s “On the Love of Lotus”—a classic essay by a Northern Song Neo-Confucian scholar—which conveys the ideal of maintaining noble character in all circumstances. The pond is surrounded by exquisitely carved railings, with column tops shaped like water droplets (Figure 8a). Beyond the academy lies the natural stream Guandao Creek, whose fast-flowing waters cascade year-round, evoking the power of a mountain gorge. A small stone bridge known as Zhenliu Bridge crosses the stream—one of the most poetic sites in the academy (Figure 8c). Carved into a rock in the creek are the characters “Zhenliu” (resting upon the stream) [72], written by Zhu Xi himself (Figure 8b), symbolizing the Neo-Confucian ideal of a secluded, contemplative life dedicated to learning and unity with nature.

In contrast, Korean academies do not include Pan Ponds with ritual symbolism, nor do they feature large man-made water bodies. Instead, they have small wells or lotus ponds. Within the courtyard of the lecture hall at Tosan Academy, there are two square ponds in separate locations, named Meng Spring (Figure 8d) and Jeongyudang (Figure 8f) by Yi Hwang himself. The name Meng Spring is derived from the Meng hexagram (Menggua) in the Book of Changes (Yijing), and Yi Hwang composed a poem to imbue the spring with symbolic meaning, using it to illustrate the Confucian value placed on educational enlightenment [73]. This practice of attributing symbolic meaning to natural elements reflects how Joseon-era Neo-Confucian scholars translated Confucian teachings into spatial and environmental expressions.

4.3.3. Plants

Each courtyard within BaiLuDong Academy features a rich variety of plants, utilizing their seasonal variations, forms, and lifespans to convey cultural meaning, reflecting scholarly esthetics and moral values. This creates a harmonious integration of landscape and emotion, a hallmark of traditional Chinese gardens. The academy’s landscape primarily consists of plants with profound symbolic meanings and auspicious connotations. For example, plum blossomssymbolize academic perseverance and great achievement through diligent study. Magnolia represents the integrity of scholars, who do not yield to material wealth. The selection of tree species also considers seasonal esthetics, with flowering plants making up 50% of the academy’s greenery, ensuring visual diversity throughout the four seasons. Based on on-site surveys and literature research, BaiLuDong Academy contains 54 plant species, as shown in

Table 2. Table of plant species.

Academy	Type	Contents
BaiLuDong Academy	Trees	Trident maple, Osmanthus, Michelia, Acer truncatum, Goldenrain tree, Chinese juniper, Pine, Bamboo, Camellia, Magnolia, Firmiana, Prunus mume (Plum blossom), Liquidambar, Metasequoia, Lohan pine, Waxberry, Banana, Pittosporum, Chinese tallow tree, Mahogany, Cockspur coral tree, Sophora japonica
	Shrubs	Golden bamboo, Podocarpus, Poplar, Loropetalum, Calycanthus, Privet, Pittosporum tobira, Chinese hibiscus, Red camellia, Chinese fringe flower, Prunus mume, Cotoneaster, Redbud, Hibiscus, White hibiscus, Wintergreen, Sea holly
	Herbs	Red-leaf vinegarweed, Wheatgrass, Narcissus, Dandelion, White clover, Spiderwort, Acanthus, Water banana, Alpinia, Globe amaranth, Cymbidium
Tosan Academy	Trees	Plum tree (30), Maple (17), Crape myrtle, Willow, Ginkgo, Persimmon, Papaya tree, Forsythia, Cherry blossom, Camphor, Golden pine, Red bean fir
	Shrubs	Peony, Chinese peony, Prunus mume, Wintersweet, Hibiscus, Yellow poplar, Fragrant olive
	Herbs	Artemisia, White peony

. The planting arrangement within the academies primarily adopts a formal and symmetrical layout to emphasize a sense of order, solemnity, and cleanliness in the educational environment.

Korean traditional academies, influenced by Neo-Confucian views on nature, prioritized external natural landscapes as their primary scenic elements, minimizing artificial plantings within the academy grounds. Notably, lecture courtyards and ritual courtyards were intentionally left without any vegetation. As a result, Tosan Academy contains fewer plants and fewer species compared to Chinese academies (Table 2). Most vegetation is concentrated around the outer walls of individual courtyards, featuring pines, plums, bamboo, and camellias—plants symbolizing Confucian virtues and scholarly integrity, reinforcing the orthodoxy of Neo-Confucianism. Another key characteristic is the tradition of planting trees favored by the honored figures [74]. Tosan Academy, for instance, has 30 plum trees, as Yi Hwang, the venerated scholar, favored them. Similarly, Byeongsan Academy features crape myrtles, which were beloved by Ryu Seong-ryong. The plant arrangement in academies primarily adopted scattered planting and group planting techniques, showcasing the esthetic beauty of individual plants and plant clusters, which aligned with the lively atmosphere of the academy.

4.3.4. Viewing Mode

The viewing experience at the BaiLuDong Academy in China is characterized by a combination of static and dynamic observation. Static viewing primarily occurs within the academy’s courtyards, emphasizing a sense of visual stability and spatial order. Dynamic viewing, on the other hand, takes place in the surrounding mountainous landscape, allowing scholars to experience the ever-changing scenery as they move through nature.

Although the academy is enclosed by tall walls, the courtyards are interconnected through moon gates, creating a permeable environment and allowing space for walking and contemplation. However, unlike the winding paths of Jiangnan private gardens, the paths within BaiLuDong Academy are mostly straight (Figure 9a), reflecting the ritual-oriented nature of the academy and directing students’ movement and visual focus accordingly. Inside the academy, visual lines are oriented toward key buildings along the central axis, such as the Lecture Hall, the Imperial Book Pavilion, and the Lisheng Hall. Taking the axis of Lisheng Hall as an example, the spatial experience shifts significantly after entering through the Lisheng Gate. Compared to the open exterior, the courtyard becomes compressed in scale, and the roof eaves of Lisheng Hall fall outside a 50-degree upward viewing angle (Figure 9c). This angle produces a strong sense of visual pressure, granting the building a dominant presence in the space and reinforcing its monumental and authoritative character, thereby intensifying the viewer’s ritual and spiritual experience of the ancestral worship conducted within.

The landscape composition and the direction of the view from within the building are meticulously designed. Taking the view from the Li Sheng Hall as an example, the visual experience progresses in layers, creating a scene composed of foreground, middle ground, and background (Figure 9b). In the foreground, one can observe the incense burner and plants outside the hall; in the middle ground, the hollowed-out Li Sheng Gate serves as a visual transition; in the background, a stone bridge and stone archway are visible, with mountains and forest beyond the garden. This gradual progression of the line of sight enhances the spatial sense and depth of the academy. When the Li Sheng Gate is closed, the outside landscape is completely blocked, and the field of vision is reduced to the interior of the hall, concentrating attention. This change in space induced by the opening and closing of the gate can be understood as dynamic visual control, shaping different spatial experiences and psychological perceptions.

The primary differences between Joseon-era Korean academies and Chinese academies lie in their emphasis on commemorative rites for local Neo-Confucian scholars and spiritual cultivation through natural landscapes (mid-term report from a consulting organization when applying for UNESCO World Heritage status at a Korean academy, P181). On 21 December 2018, the ICOMOS World Heritage expert group submitted an Interim Report to Korea, highlighting that the “Seowon”, or Korean Neo-Confucian Academies, represent a distinctive cultural complex integrating education, commemorative rites, and landscape appreciation and that they have developed into a clearly defined and collectively shared open architectural typology [75]. Neo-Confucian scholars of the Joseon period developed a novel architectural style that harmoniously integrated buildings with their natural surroundings, characterized by open lecture halls, low boundary walls, and terrain-sensitive layouts. Such spatial arrangements provided scholars with outward-looking viewing spaces, enabling spiritual self-cultivation within nature, distancing themselves from secular temptations, and achieving the Neo-Confucian ideal of holistic cultivation of mind and body.

From the perspective of viewing orientation, Tosan Academy’s main buildings—including the lecture hall, shrine, and pathways—are strategically oriented toward optimal scenic views, ensuring a complete landscape experience in specific directions (Figure 10a). For example, while walking from the Jeonggyotang to the academy entrance, one must descend a staircase, with a progressive visual transition: the foreground features the courtyard and bamboo grove; the middle ground presents the academy’s architecture; and the background unfolds into the vast lake. This layered perspective, transitioning from near to far, reinforces the “changing views with movement” experience, allowing scholars to appreciate nature’s depth and vastness both in motion and in stillness. Conversely, an analysis of the viewing perspective from the academy entrance toward the Jeonggyotang reveals that, due to the relatively low height of the buildings and the spacious proportions of the courtyard, the upward viewing angle toward the architecture remains at approximately 30 degrees (Figure 10b). This angle allows observers to clearly perceive the overall architectural form and its roofline, harmonizing with the surrounding natural environment and enhancing spatial intimacy rather than creating an oppressive sense of authority. Additionally, previous quantitative studies utilizing the space syntax method have demonstrated that the spatial structure of the Jeonggyotang effectively directs visual attention within the academy complex [31]. The openness and landscape orientation of the academy ensure that the Jeonggyotang serves not only as the core node of spatial circulation but also governs the viewer’s visual experience by directing sightlines toward the lake and distant mountains, thus further strengthening the organic integration between the academy and its natural surroundings.

China’s BaiLuDong Academy employs high walls to create an enclosed, idealized landscape within the academy, emphasizing artificially designed scenery. Through the deliberate control of sightlines, it embodies traditional Confucian educational values, highlighting students’ intense concentration and self-discipline. In contrast, the natural landscape surrounding the academy serves as a space for mental relaxation and self-cultivation. Compared to BaiLuDong Academy’s restricted, contemplative approach, students at Tosan Academy can transcend spatial limitations, gazing upon external lakes, distant mountains, and changing skies. This spatial openness allows nature itself to become part of their educational experience, thereby achieving the Neo-Confucian ideal of harmony between humanity and nature.

4.4. The Decorations of the Academy

In traditional society, education was not merely the transmission of knowledge but also served as a mechanism for reproducing state and socio-cultural ideologies. As an educational institution distinct from official educational systems, academies embody deep Confucian cultural meanings expressed through spatial design. The site selection, architectural layout and form, landscape structure, and symbolic decorations of academies explicitly represent Neo-Confucian conceptions of ethical norms and moral cultivation. Academies, as spaces embodying the Confucian ideals of “self-cultivation, family harmony, state governance, and world peace”, avoid excessive ornamentation and luxury in their architectural style and landscape atmosphere, thereby providing spaces conducive to scholarly reflection and disciplined study. BaiLuDong Academy in China and Tosan Academy in Korea, as representative examples, both exhibit an esthetic characterized by restraint, elegance, and simplicity. Decoration elements within the academies are not merely visual embellishments but convey specific symbolic meanings through their patterns, adding unique cultural significance to the spatial environment. The subsequent analysis will focus on the comparative examination of doors and windows, column bases, plaques, and roof decorations of the two academies, highlighting distinctive cultural and esthetic expressions from China and Korea.

4.4.1. Plaques

In traditional Chinese architecture, plaques and couplets hold a significant role in shaping spatial character and esthetic meaning. A plaque is a horizontal inscription placed above a building’s entrance, while a couplet consists of paired poetic lines hung on doorways or columns [76]. These textual elements stimulate visitors’ imagination, allowing them to perceive the space’s symbolic meaning and atmosphere. In Confucian academies, plaques and couplets serve to highlight the academy’s educational mission and promote Confucian values. Moreover, the placement and authoritative calligraphy of plaques emphasize the central axis hierarchy and reinforce the significance of key structures, aligning with the spatial principles of order and hierarchy. Among all structures, Lisheng Hall, positioned along the second axial line, holds the highest status. Its plaque, “Sheng Min Wei You” (

Table 3. Comparison of Chinese and Korean academy plaques.

	Plaque
BaiLuDong
Tosan
BaiLuDong

), was personally inscribed by Emperor Yongzheng of the Qing Dynasty, signifying reverence for Confucius’s philosophy. This imperial plaque, with a blue background and golden characters, is adorned with nine golden dragons, exuding grandeur and solemnity (Table 3). The couplets on both sides, also written by Emperor Yongzheng, further praise Confucius. Inside the hall, another plaque, “Teacher of Ten Thousand Generations” (Table 3), was bestowed by Emperor Kangxi, with golden characters on a black background, accompanied by couplets celebrating Confucianism and the academy’s achievements.

In front of Lisheng Hall stands Lisheng Gate, with a plaque reading “Gate of True Learning”, and three pairs of couplets: two on the front and one on the back. Another key structure along the third axial line, the Imperial Library Pavilion, also features a plaque gifted by Emperor Kangxi (Table 3). The couplets flanking the entrance, written by Zhu Xi, read “A clear spring is fit for washing inkstones, while these elegant mountains are worthy of storing books”, linking the function of the library with the surrounding natural landscape of BaiLuDong Academy. Plaques on other structures along the axial lines are simpler, crafted from plain wooden boards with inscriptions in subdued tones, fixed using iron brackets. This understated esthetic reflects BaiLuDong Academy’s values of simplicity, restraint, and scholarly integrity.

The plaques at Tosan Academy are generally named after the buildings themselves, with the names reflecting either Confucian philosophy or the function of the academy. Some plaques were personally inscribed by Yi Hwang (Toegye), while others were later added to commemorate his academic legacy. Yi Hwang himself inscribed three plaques: “Tosan Lecture Hall”, “Wangle Zhai”, and “Yanqi Pavilion” (Table 3). His calligraphy is upright and firm, with smooth yet restrained strokes, and the plaques are completely unadorned, aligning with his esthetic preference for simplicity in academy architecture. Later, as the academy expanded, descendants and followers added plaques with decorative elements and stylized designs to honor Yi Hwang’s contributions. The most significant of these is the “Tosan Academy” plaque (Table 3), which was imperially bestowed by King Seonjo in 1575. This plaque features a more solemn and weighty calligraphic style, with a painted decorative border, distinguishing it from Yi Hwang’s original inscriptions. Notably, Korean academies do not have couplets, which are commonly found in Chinese academies.

Both academies use plaques to convey Confucian ideals and reflect their educational purpose, adopting a simple and solemn style to enhance the academic atmosphere. However, the plaque arrangement in BaiLuDong Academy is closely linked to the spatial sequence along the central axis, serving as both a visual focal point and an important element of spatial rhythm, emphasizing the hierarchy and order of the architecture. In contrast, the plaques in Tosan Academy continue Yi Hwang’s advocacy for a “simple and modest” esthetic and the educational philosophy of self-cultivation, but they do not strongly correspond to the architectural spatial rhythm.

4.4.2. Door Patterns

Although BaiLuDong Academy follows a traditional wooden frame structure, its decorative elements remain restrained. Compared to Yuelu Academy or ancestral temples, wood carvings are minimal, primarily concentrated on doors and windows, reflecting the Confucian ideal of simplicity. The doors in BaiLuDong Academy typically feature a half-openwork, half-solid design, ensuring both privacy and natural lighting. The openwork sections are predominantly adorned with various variations of the swastika pattern (Figure 11a), a symbol associated with endless continuity, prosperity, longevity, happiness, and boundlessness, carrying auspicious meanings and blessings [77]. Similarly, the window decorations mirror the design of the doors, enhancing the architectural coherence of the academy.

The doors at Tosan Academy are fewer in number and lower in height compared to those at BaiLuDong Academy, with a more minimalist design (Figure 11b). The decorative patterns primarily feature linear geometric motifs, emphasizing simplicity. Additionally, the wooden lattice structure of Tosan Academy’s doors is placed on the exterior, while paper is applied on the interior, creating a clean and well-organized indoor space. This design ensures both esthetics and privacy while allowing for ample natural light. Such an approach is a common feature in traditional Korean architecture.

4.4.3. Column Bases

In BaiLuDong Academy, the use of stone carving is highly restrained, limited only to the pillar bases in front of Lisheng Hall. These pillar bases, dating from the Ming Dynasty, support robust wooden pillars up to 10 m in height, effectively preventing subsidence and decay. The surfaces are intricately carved with plant motifs, such as orchids, lotuses, peonies, and honeysuckles, executed in deep relief. These carvings not only visually lighten the heaviness of the bases and enhance the esthetic appeal but also convey auspicious symbolic meanings that reinforce the academy’s cultural essence. Elsewhere in the academy, pillar bases remain unadorned, reflecting a deliberate esthetic restraint.

In contrast, pillar bases at Tosan Academy predominantly feature unmodified natural stones without any decorative treatment. This approach is prevalent not only at Tosan Academy but also broadly across the eight other Korean academies inscribed as World Heritage sites, such as Byeongsan Academy, Oksan Academy, and Dodong Academy (

Table 4. Comparison of Chinese and Korean academy column bases.

Name	Picture	Details
BaiLuDong Academy
Tosan Academy

). This consistent practice underscores a commitment to natural authenticity in material selection and form, reflecting a continuation of the naturalistic tendencies characteristic of Korean academy architecture.

4.4.4. Roof Decoration

Academy architecture serves as both a site for producing Confucian thought and a place where its ideological orthodoxy is visually affirmed. Roofs, due to their proximity to the sky, carry significant symbolic implications in Confucian spatial consciousness. As a metaphorical point of connection between humanity, ethics, and the cosmos, roofs symbolize universal order, thereby becoming pivotal within Confucian spatial symbolism [78]. In previous architectural analyses, the roofing style was highlighted as a key indicator of building hierarchy, representing spatial authority materially. Accordingly, roof decoration expresses Confucian ideals of modesty and restraint.

The BaiLuDong Academy employs minimal roof decoration, limited to basic elements such as Chiwen (Chiwen is a mythical creature from ancient Chinese legends, originally depicted as a fish-like aquatic being. Commonly placed at both ends of roof ridges in traditional Chinese architecture, it serves structurally to stabilize the ridge while symbolically representing protection against fire and bringing auspicious blessings), eave tiles, and drip tiles, clearly distinct from the elaborate ornamentation typical of palace architecture. The Chiwen, often depicted with a dragon’s head and a fish’s body, are carved simply, reflecting restrained esthetics. Eave and drip tiles primarily feature symbolic plant motifs, such as orchids and lotus flowers, representing purity, complemented by motifs such as tiger heads and bats (

Table 5. Comparison of Chinese and Korean academy roof decoration.

	Roof Decoration
BaiLuDong
Features	Animal motifs: Fish, White Tiger, Bat; Plant motifs: Orchid, Lotus, etc.
Tosan
	——		——
Features	Floral motifs such as chrysanthemum and orchid were used, while no animal motifs were found.

), symbolizing protection and happiness, collectively embodying the academy’s cultural emphasis on moral self-cultivation.

Korea’s Tosan Academy continues this naturalistic and minimalist esthetic, avoiding elaborate rooftop sculptures. Ornamentation is minimal, with decorative eave and drip tiles used sparingly, typically only on important buildings (Table 5). These tiles predominantly feature chrysanthemum patterns—a motif introduced from China during the Goryeo period, symbolizing elegance and moral purity, as documented historically in the Yanghwa Sorok (www.culture.go.kr, accessed on 20 January 2025). These findings align with previous studies indicating the widespread use of auspicious floral patterns in traditional Korean architecture [79]. Notably, Tosan Academy’s architectural ornamentation completely avoids animal motifs, emphasizing its esthetic restraint.

Overall, both Chinese and Korean academies adopt a simplified yet symbolic roof decoration strategy, transforming the roof into an intermediary expressing the Confucian cosmological principle of harmony between humanity and nature. Through restrained yet symbolically charged ornamentation, the roofs achieve a highly unified translation from ethical philosophy to spatial language, providing the most direct and tangible visual representation of Confucian thought within architectural space.

4.4.5. Materials and Colors

BaiLuDong Academy adopts a highly restrained color palette, with no traditional painted decorations on building surfaces. The wooden framework is coated only with protective oil, with roof frames predominantly in red and columns, doors, and windows in black. The walls and enclosing structures maintain a white base tone, forming a harmonious combination of gray tiles, white walls, and black wooden frames (Figure 12a). This color scheme blends seamlessly with the natural mountain landscape, reinforcing the academy’s Confucian values of quiet study and frugal living. The minimalist color treatment also enhances the purity of the space, avoiding excessive ornamentation that could distract students.

The color scheme of Tosan Academy reflects two distinct value systems: one from Yi Hwang’s original constructions and another from later additions built in his honor. These differences highlight both material and cultural shifts. Yi Hwang’s buildings eliminate artificial colors and decorations, emphasizing natural material textures, aligning with Zhu Xi’s philosophy of simplicity. In contrast, later additions, such as Jeon-gyo Hall and the shrine, introduced soft red, green, and blue, along with painted ornamentation on caisson ceilings and beams (Figure 12b). This shift demonstrates both reverence for Yi Hwang’s legacy and Korean traditional color expression in memorial architecture. Additionally, unlike the strict color regulations in ancient China, the color restrictions during the Joseon Dynasty were relatively simple [80].

5. Discussion

This study conducts a comparative analysis of the characteristics of BaiLuDong Academy and Tosan Academy in four aspects—site selection, architecture, landscape, and ornamentation—to reveal the similarities and differences in the spatial organization, integration of the natural environment, and cultural symbolism of Chinese and Korean academies. The results indicate that, although the two academies differ in form, both embody a common logic in the localized evolution of Confucian value systems.

(1)

Architectural Spatial Organization: Ritual Order, User Needs, and Local Adaptation

Confucian thought emphasizes hierarchical order and the distinction between superior and inferior. Chinese academies strictly follow an axial, symmetrical layout, which establishes a clear hierarchy within the built environment and reinforces spatial control and order. Although the primary educational goal of the academy is to cultivate scholarly virtue and self-cultivation, the civil service examination remains a collective objective for Chinese students. Due to the large student body, Chinese academies enforce strict internal management with a rigorously scheduled daily routine—covering wake-up times, class sessions, and bedtime routines—which necessitates a spatial configuration that supports a uniform rhythm [81]. Consequently, the teaching, ritual, and living spaces within Chinese academies are distinctly delineated, forming a closed system that enables deep control over the physiological behaviors of students in accordance with educational objectives.

In contrast, academies during the Joseon period, while still emphasizing commemorative rites in accordance with the Confucian principle of “lecturing in front and enshrining behind”, retain a degree of flexibility and openness in their spatial organization. These academies were often established spontaneously by local Confucian scholars in rural settings, with spatial arrangements that primarily served academic exchange, moral cultivation, and ancestral rites rather than the state examination system. As a result, the functional divisions and spatial structures of Joseon academies tend to be more loosely organized and free-form. For instance, lecture halls and dormitories are typically located within the same courtyard rather than forming a large, strictly regulated network as in Chinese academies. Additionally, regional environmental factors play a crucial role in shaping architectural form; for example, BaiLuDong Academy exhibits distinct Huizhou architectural features with white walls and gray tiles, whereas Tosan Academy incorporates traditional Korean residential systems, such as ondol heating and elevated wooden flooring, reflecting a fusion of local building technology and practical living wisdom.

(2)

Differences in Landscape Spatial Organization: Philosophical Perceptions of Nature

The fundamental differences in the landscape spatial forms of Chinese and Korean academies reflect two distinct civilizational perspectives on nature and how these philosophies are spatially manifested. Chinese academies regard mountains and water as objects to be culturally transformed and symbolically refined. The principle of “artificial yet appearing natural”, as expressed by Ji Cheng in The Craft of Gardens (Yuan Ye), is embodied in Chinese academies by recreating mountain-and-water imagery within enclosed courtyards or by employing the technique of “borrowed scenery” to visually integrate distant mountains and nearby water into the spatial system. These design strategies serve pedagogical purposes, utilizing rational planning to align the landscape with educational ideals.

However, this does not suggest a complete severance between man and nature in Chinese academies. The natural landscapes beyond the academy walls continue to serve as vital spaces for spiritual retreat. Scholars often sought self-cultivation through climbing mountains, composing poetry, and carving inscriptions into rock surfaces, maintaining a strong connection with the surrounding environment.

In contrast, the landscape of Korean academies, especially during the Joseon period, reflects a more harmonious and symbiotic relationship with nature. These academies were typically distributed along mountain slopes, with buildings arranged in accordance with topography. Open architectural forms directed views toward lakes and mountain ranges, while internal courtyard landscaping was minimized to highlight the moral and spiritual nourishment derived from the natural environment itself. This design philosophy emphasizes immersion in nature as a means of cultivating virtue. The UNESCO evaluation report also acknowledged the successful integration of humans and landscape in Korean academies of the Joseon era, recognizing it as a key aspect of their Outstanding Universal Value.

(3)

Architectural Ornamentation: Expressions of Hierarchy and Social Order

In both Chinese and Korean academies, decorative design closely aligns with their overall architectural and landscape philosophies, reflecting the Confucian emphasis on restraint, simplicity, and didactic function. The BaiLuDong Academy embodies a principle of “meaningful restraint” in its ornamentation; rather than eliminating decoration entirely, it selectively retains culturally symbolic patterns to enhance the spatial rhythm and ceremonial hierarchy. These carefully chosen elements reinforce the spatial experience while upholding Confucian values.

In contrast, Tosan Academy exhibits a more naturalistic approach to ornamentation. During the era of Yi Hwang, buildings deliberately avoided artificial embellishments, preserving the raw texture of materials as a reflection of his Neo-Confucian ideal of harmony between humanity and nature. Later additions to the academy, built to commemorate Yi Hwang, introduced more vivid decorative colors. These later developments highlight the increased emphasis on ritual and memorial functions in Joseon-era academies, signaling a shift in their spatial and symbolic significance.

6. Conclusions

This study takes the BaiLuDong Academy in China and the Tosan Academy in Korea as representative case studies to conduct a systematic comparison and cultural interpretation of Confucian academy spatial design principles across multiple dimensions, including historical development, site selection, architectural composition, landscape organization, and decorative elements. The findings suggest that academies function as spatial arenas for the continuous construction and transformation of Confucian ideology—a form of cultural “reproduction” in spatial practice. The spatial similarities and differences between Chinese and Korean academies reveal the adaptive adjustments and localized integration of Confucian thought during its cross-regional transmission. Chinese academies reinforce the collective mission of entering officialdom through the imperial examination by embodying hierarchical order and ritual principles in their spatial layouts. Their enclosed courtyards and clearly defined functional zones serve as performative stages for the social identity of the scholarly elite. In contrast, Korean academies, shaped by mountainous terrain, developed an ecological wisdom rooted in nature, adopting more flexible and open spatial arrangements to support spiritual cultivation and self-discipline while placing strong emphasis on the ritual function of venerating teachers and sages.

This study underscores the dynamic interplay between material space and cultural values and attempts to reinterpret historical spaces through a design-based perspective, offering new insights into the regional and cultural expressions of Confucian educational architecture. It also demonstrates the methodological potential of integrating cultural anthropology and spatial morphology, providing an expandable framework for cross-cultural comparative research on Confucian architecture. Furthermore, the findings contribute theoretical reference for the contemporary reinterpretation and reinvention of traditional cultural spaces within modern educational contexts.

Lastly, this research primarily focuses on material spatial comparisons, while the mechanisms by which internal educational activities and intellectual transmission have shaped spatial configurations remain underexplored. Future studies could incorporate spatial quantification methods and historical documentation to further investigate the co-evolution of pedagogical practices and spatial morphology in Confucian academies.