Feasibility Study on the “New Traditional” Model and Energy-Saving Strategy for Chinese–Korean Vernacular Living Under the Construction of Border Villages

Abstract

In the context of China’s rural revitalization strategy, improving the livability and sustainability of traditional dwellings in border regions has become a critical priority. This study examines Chinese–Korean houses in border villages, where field investigations and quantitative analysis reveal persistent challenges: poor indoor thermal comfort and high energy consumption due to outdated building envelopes and inefficient heating systems. To address these issues, we propose an integrated retrofitting solution that combines building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) and ground-source heat pump (GSHP) technologies. Unlike previous studies focusing on isolated applications, our approach emphasizes the synergistic integration of active energy generation and high-efficiency thermal regulation, while preserving the architectural and cultural identity of traditional dwellings. Pilot results demonstrate significant improvements in PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) and economic viability, and achieve a high level of esthetic and cultural compatibility. Modular BIPV integration provides on-site renewable electricity without altering roof forms, while GSHP ensures stable, efficient heating and cooling year-round. This solution offers a replicable, regionally adaptive model for low-carbon rural housing transformation. By aligning technological innovation with cultural preservation and socioeconomic feasibility, the study contributes to a new paradigm of rural development, supporting ecological sustainability, ethnic unity, and border stability.

1. Introduction

In the context of China’s strategic shift toward rural public infrastructure development, significant progress has been made in improving rural production and living conditions, driving historic transformations across the countryside [1]. Yet, challenges persist, particularly in remote and ethnically diverse border regions, where infrastructure coverage remains uneven and public service quality lags behind rising resident expectations. These disparities highlight a growing gap between existing rural conditions and the aspirations of rural populations for modern, comfortable, and sustainable living. As a core component of the national rural revitalization strategy and a critical step toward national modernization, rural construction must now prioritize targeted, context-sensitive interventions that bridge this gap. This is especially urgent in border areas, where housing quality directly impacts ethnic unity, social stability, and cultural continuity. Aligning with China’s broader “dual carbon” goals (carbon peak by 2030, carbon neutrality by 2060), rural building upgrades offer a vital opportunity to reduce emissions while improving livability through low-carbon technologies and energy-efficient design.

Based on a field survey of 69 households in border villages of Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, supplemented by structured questionnaires, this study identifies two key challenges in residential thermal environment regulation: (1) a thermal performance paradox rooted in traditional Chinese–Korean architecture—characterized by poor winter insulation (average indoor temperatures below 14 °C) and inadequate summer ventilation, leading to persistent discomfort across seasons; and (2) the absence of reliable domestic hot water systems, with most households relying on inefficient coal stoves or electric heaters that fail to meet modern hygiene and comfort standards. These deficiencies not only undermine quality of life but also hinder the long-term sustainability of ethnic architectural heritage in a changing climate and socio-economic landscape.

While building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) and ground-source heat pumps (GSHP) have been widely studied in urban and commercial contexts, their application in traditional rural housing remains critically underexplored. A systematic review reveals that fewer than 5% of published BIPV-GSHP studies focus on rural or heritage-sensitive dwellings, and none simultaneously address technical integration, cultural compatibility, and economic feasibility in border ethnic communities [2]. Key gaps include:

(1)

Limited analysis of life-cycle costs and payback periods for integrated systems in low-income rural settings;

(2)

Insufficient attention to esthetic and material compatibility with traditional architectural forms;

(3)

A lack of empirical data on system-level energy performance under real-world rural operating conditions.

This study makes three original contributions to the literature: first, it proposes and validates an integrated BIPV-GSHP retrofitting framework specifically designed for Chinese–Korean dwellings, demonstrating how high-performance energy systems can be harmonized with traditional architectural esthetics. Second, it provides corresponding data on energy savings (up to 62%) and thermal comfort improvement (PMV increase from −1.8 to −0.4 in winter) through simulation experiments, offering scalable technical benchmarks for cold-climate rural housing. Third, it advances a culturally grounded, economically viable model that balances decarbonization with heritage preservation—filling a critical gap in sustainable rural building research. By aligning technological innovation with policy goals of rural revitalization and the “dual carbon” transition, this work offers a replicable pathway for sustainable, inclusive, and culturally respectful development in China’s border regions.

2. Analysis of Chinese–Korean Dwellings in Border Villages

2.1. Traditional Dwellings in Border Villages

Traditional Chinese–Korean houses in the Yanbian region not only exhibit a distinctive architectural style but also embody profound cultural connotations and social history. In terms of cultural inheritance, these folk dwellings serve as vital carriers of ethnic traditional culture, reflecting the lifestyle, esthetic values, and adaptive strategies of the Chinese–Korean community to their natural environment. The preservation of such buildings ensures the continuity and protection of Chinese–Korean cultural heritage.

Architecturally, the exterior walls of these houses are not primary load-bearing components; instead, wooden beams and columns form the structural skeleton, while the outer walls primarily serve as enclosures. Roofs are typically constructed using locally sourced materials such as straw or tiles, adopting traditional forms like the pavilion-style or four-slope roof, which collectively create a unique architectural identity (Figure 1). This design demonstrates exceptional craftsmanship and efficient utilization of natural resources. A notable feature is the Wentu heating system, which employs combustion heat to warm the entire house, enhancing thermal comfort while showcasing the ancestral wisdom of energy efficiency and environmental adaptation.

Spatially, traditional layouts integrate single- or double-row living areas with kitchens, combining functions for reception, sleeping, and dining. Courtyards are historically enclosed by wooden planks or stone walls to contain livestock, though modern adaptations often replace these with brick walls of increased height. Contemporary courtyard gates are frequently upgraded to iron or wrought-iron fences. With the expansion of agricultural activities, additional spaces such as storage rooms, cellars, and open areas for growing vegetables or storing goods have been incorporated. Toilets are strategically placed in courtyard corners to avoid residential zones, minimizing air pollution while providing organic fertilizer for gardens. This spatial organization reflects a harmonious relationship with nature and a pursuit of improved quality of life (Figure 2).

As tangible cultural heritage, these dwellings also encapsulate intangible cultural elements, representing the historical, cultural, and lifestyle characteristics of the Chinese–Korean people. Their preservation and inheritance not only strengthen national cultural identity and community cohesion, but also stimulate local cultural tourism, injecting new vitality into regional economies. From a national strategic perspective, prioritizing the protection and renewal of traditional houses is critical for maintaining cultural diversity and advancing rural revitalization. Integrating modern technologies to improve living conditions while preserving traditional features can enhance residents’ quality of life and contribute to sustainable development goals. This dual approach holds significant implications for cultural heritage conservation, border area economic growth, and the achievement of national strategic objectives.

2.2. The Current Situation of Research on Border Rural Dwellings

Through field visits and investigations of 69 Chinese–Korean traditional dwellings in Group 7, Zidong Village, Kaishantun Town, Longjing City, and Yanbian Prefecture, combined with resident questionnaire surveys (Figure 3), this study identifies critical issues affecting the livability of border-area residences in the region. Key findings include:

(1)

Excessive summer indoor temperatures: during daytime hours in summer, indoor temperatures reach 30–35 °C, with perceived temperatures exceeding 40 °C, rendering the environment unsuitable for comfortable habitation

(2)

Inconvenient domestic hot water supply: only a small proportion of households are equipped with storage-type electric water heaters (approximately 3300 W power rating). These devices consume 120 kWh of electricity monthly, costing 63 RMB—accounting for over 80% of total monthly electricity expenditures. Consequently, residents rarely utilize this system.

To address these challenges and enhance residential comfort, this study proposes the integrated strategies for the transformation of Chinese–Korean houses [3]. The proposed approach aims to construct “new traditional” Chinese–Korean dwellings that simultaneously meet modern living comfort standards and improve energy efficiency [4].

2.3. Definition of Chinese–Korean Folk Houses Under the “New Tradition”

The “New Traditional” folk house represents a synthesis of traditional Chinese–Korean architecture and modern lifestyle needs, integrating contemporary construction technologies, materials, and functional requirements while preserving the cultural heritage of the Chinese–Korean community. Through innovative design and adaptive transformation, this architectural approach not only enhances residential comfort, but also significantly improves energy efficiency, achieving an effective integration of energy-saving strategies [5].

3. The Renovation Strategy of Korean Houses Under the “New Tradition”

3.1. Selection of Typical Chinese–Korean Folk Houses

To achieve the harmonious integration of traditional architectural heritage preservation and modern functional enhancement, this study proposes a “New Tradition” transformation paradigm. This framework is grounded in a systematic analysis of Korean houses’ cultural DNA and constructional wisdom, emphasizing three key strategies: (1) Cultural Element Retention: Precise identification of essential architectural features and symbolic elements requiring preservation; (2) Functional Reconstruction: Application of modern design methodologies and innovative materials to address contemporary living demands; (3) Community Engagement: Establishment of a participatory mechanism to ensure transformation outcomes align with residents’ practical needs.

This paradigm effectively bridges the gap between cultural continuity and technological advancement. It not only mitigates the risk of cultural erosion from over-modernization but also resolves the functional shortcomings often associated with purely formalist or replicative approaches, ultimately achieving dual enhancements in cultural and practical value [6]. Guided by these principles, the study conducts a systematic survey and mapping of 10 representative Chinese–Korean houses in Zidong Village (Figure 4). Through multi-dimensional comparative analysis, seven residential units under the Yu Guojiang lineage are selected as demonstration renovation projects. Notably, these buildings—originally century-old Korean residential management support structures—exhibit dual characteristics: (1) Architectural Authenticity: Full retention of traditional Korean architectural traits, including hallmark techniques like resting mountain roofs and warm floor heating systems; (2) Functional Contradiction: Their compound operational requirements (e.g., maintenance spaces for residential equipment) create a tension with the spatial efficiency inherent to traditional layouts.

This duality presents both opportunities and challenges for renovation. To address these, the project innovatively integrates “Traditional Genes + Modern Technology” through a building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) system [7]. Monocrystalline silicon photovoltaic modules are seamlessly incorporated into traditional envelope components (roofs and façades), enabling intelligent linkage between the surface power generation system and indoor electrical appliances. This integration establishes a closed-loop “generation–storage–consumption” energy cycle, culminating in the creation of a “New Tradition” Chinese–Korean residential model that balances cultural heritage preservation with modern quality-of-life standards.

3.2. Renovation Strategy of Chinese–Korean Folk Houses

In alignment with China’s dual priorities of rural revitalization and “dual carbon” goals, this study proposes a “New Traditional” housing model that integrates architectural heritage preservation with modern energy efficiency standards (see Figure 5). The design addresses the urgent need to balance cultural continuity, thermal comfort, and low-carbon development in border regions, where existing retrofitting strategies often prioritize energy performance at the expense of architectural authenticity—particularly in ethnically sensitive rural areas vulnerable to homogenized technological interventions.

To bridge this gap, we propose an integrated energy system combining building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) and ground-source heat pumps (GSHP) [8]. These technologies, though mature in urban applications, remain underutilized in culturally significant rural housing [9]. BIPV, conceptualized in the early 20th century and commercialized in Japan in 1967 through MSK solar panels, has evolved into a climate-responsive architectural-energy hybrid system [10]. Recent advancements include optimized roof heat transfer dynamics, green roof synergies, and amorphous silicon cell validation for cold-region high-rise buildings in China (post-2011) [11]. GSHP, rooted in mid-20th-century Swiss subsurface energy theories, gained prominence post-1973 oil crisis, with Nordic countries leading large-scale deployments due to their superior COP/EER values compared to conventional heating systems.

However, critical research gaps persist: over 97% of BIPV and GSHP studies focus on urban or commercial buildings, neglecting rural traditional dwellings. Existing frameworks rarely address cultural esthetics, economic viability, or local maintenance capacity—key barriers in remote, low-income communities. Notably, no context-specific methodology exists for co-optimizing BIPV and GSHP in heritage-sensitive homes requiring preservation of roof forms, material textures, and spatial layouts. This absence of holistic system design hinders scalable low-carbon solutions in rural border areas.

This study introduces an integrated BIPV-GSHP paradigm tailored to Chinese–Korean dwellings [12]. By synergizing modular BIPV—seamlessly embedded into traditional gable roofs—with GSHP’s high-efficiency climate-resilient heating and cooling, the system achieves dual objectives: cultural preservation and energy transformation [13]. Key advantages include:

(1)

GSHP Performance: Utilizing stable underground temperatures, GSHP delivers heating and cooling with COP/EER values exceeding 4.5, outperforming coal boilers (COP ~ 1.2) and electric resistance systems (COP ~ 1.0). This reduces energy consumption by 60–70% and eliminates coal-related emissions.

(2)

BIPV Synergies: Beyond generating clean electricity, BIPV modules provide passive shading to reduce summer heat gain by 20–30%, while its modular design preserves courtyard layouts and roof esthetics.

(3)

System Resilience: Avoiding land-intensive infrastructure, the system aligns with ecological protection goals and maintains 25+ year operational lifespans under local tariff and subsidy conditions.

The proposed model demonstrates strong economic viability in rural contexts, achieving payback periods of 8–12 years through energy savings and government incentives. It enhances indoor thermal comfort (PMV values improved by 0.5–1.0) and energy self-sufficiency (30–40% grid independence). Crucially, it redefines technological innovation as a vehicle for cultural continuity, proving that low-carbon development can coexist with architectural heritage preservation in border regions.

4. Application of Energy-Saving Strategies and Simulation Assessments

To enhance residential comfort and mitigate the environmental impact of building energy consumption, this study evaluates the electricity consumption of specific electrical equipment in residential buildings through experimental simulation [14]. Additionally, the feasibility of energy-saving measures is systematically analyzed.

4.1. Case Selection, Model Building, and Simulation Settings

This study selects a representative Chinese–Korean dwelling in the Yanbian region as the research object due to its archetypal characteristics. The dwelling features a gabled roof (accounting for 80% of similar structures), which preserves traditional architectural elements such as the shorter main ridge compared to gable ends and sloped roofs on all sides. It also incorporates distinctive Chinese–Korean structural components like the temperature burst system and single-row spatial layout. These features not only reflect regional cultural continuity but also establish a unique architectural identity system for Chinese–Korean dwellings.

Geographically, the dwelling is situated in a prototypical Chinese–Korean village, with its site selection demonstrating representativeness in both socio-cultural attributes and environmental adaptability. This makes it an ideal case study for integrating traditional forms with modern functional requirements, providing a multidimensional empirical reference for the conservation and innovative transformation of Yanbian dwellings (see Figure 6).

Aiming at the imbalance between heat supply and demand due to insufficient heating in winter, overheating in summer and inefficient domestic hot water supply, this study proposes a building energy system transformation scheme based on electrification equipment. In order to systematically evaluate the comprehensive performance of the scheme, it is necessary to analyze the annual operating energy consumption, carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission intensity and human thermal comfort (PMV) indicators through simulation, and carry out quantitative analysis of the scale configuration and installation inclination optimization of the photovoltaic renewable energy system. The specific simulation process includes the following steps:

(1)

Model Construction: On-site measurements conducted in the countryside were used to calibrate the building’s relevant parameters via iterative optimization. Subsequently, the initial model was developed, adjacent surfaces were defined, and new thermal zones were created for spaces without designated thermal classifications (as shown in Figure 7);

(2)

File Export: The IDF file was exported for further analysis;

(3)

Parameter Setup: The model was imported into EnergyPlus 9.5 and saved, with key simulation parameters configured [15]. Convergence tolerance settings and the TARP radiation algorithm selection were based on technical guidelines and modeling practices aligned with ASHRAE Standard 90.2 for U.S. low-rise residential buildings (as detailed in

Table 1. Energy Consumption of Electrical Appliances in Residential Buildings.

Equipment Water Heater	Power (W)	Month of Use (Month)	Daily Usage Duration	Annual Electricity Consumption (kWh)
Ground source heat pump (heating)	875	11–12 1–3 (month)	10 h	1312.5
Ground source heat pump (refrigeration)	1225	7–9 (month)	10 h	1102.5
Air energy water heaters	750	1–12 (month)	30 min	136.875

,

Table 2. Building Envelope Construction Methods. (Source: Author’s Own Illustration).

Structure Name	Constructing Practices
Facades	20 mm cement mortar 100 mm extruded polystyrene plastic 20 mm cement mortar 200 mm aerated bricks 200 mm cement mortar
Roof	50 mm rebar mesh 100 mm cement mortar
Qall	100 mm cement mortar 30 mm wooden flooring
Window 5 12A 5 Low-E	5 12A 5 Low-E glass
Security doors	5 mm iron sheet

,

Table 3. Thermal Parameters of the Building Envelope. (Source: Author’s Own Illustration).

	Internal Surface Reflectance Ratio	Thermal Coefficient of Solar Energy	Visible Light Transmission Ratio	Heat Transfer Coefficient
Cement mortar	0.32		0	2.0 W/(m2·K)
Extruded polystyrene plastic	0.7		0	0.04 W/(m2·K)
Aerated bricks	0.6		0	0.16 W/(m2·K)
Rebar mesh	0.2		0	50 W/(m2·K)
Wooden flooring	0.2		0	0.20 W/(m2·K)
Window 5 12A 5 Low-E	0.2	0.3	0.6	1.9 W/(m2·K)
Stainless steel security door	0.2		0	3.0 W/(m2·K)

and

Table 4. Simulation parameters are configured based on software specifications and empirical data.

Building’s File Settings
Field	Units	Obj1
Name		Warehouse
North Axis	deg	0
Terrain		Urban
Loads Convergence Tolerance Value	W	0.04
Temperature Convergence Tolerance Value	deltaC	0.4
Solar Distribution		Full Exterior
Maximum Number of Warmup Days		15
Minimum Number of Warmup Days		6
Version of the file settings
Field	Units	Obj1
Version Identifier		9.6
Surface Convection Algorithm: File settings for Inside
Field	Units	Obj1
Algorithm		TARP
Site: Location file settings
Field	Units	Obj1
Name		CHN Jilin Yanji Longjing
Latitude		42.88
Longitude		129.47
Time Zone		8
Elevation		176.8

);

(4)

Results: The optimal inclination angle of photovoltaic panels in Kaishan Tunzidong Village [16], Longjing City, Yanbian Prefecture (see Figure 8) is determined based on performance parameters such as photovoltaic system module efficiency and overall system loss, evaluated according to the Chinese national standard Performance Monitoring Guidelines for Photovoltaic Power Generation Systems (GB/T 34129-2017 [17]). Geoclimatic data for Kaishan Tunzidong Village, Longjing City, Yanbian Prefecture is derived from the typical meteorological year (TMY) dataset released by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in 2022. Changes in electricity consumption, carbon dioxide emissions, and human thermal comfort (PMV) before and after renovation are detailed in

Table 5. Comparison of the average energy consumption, carbon emissions and thermal comfort of Korean houses before and after renovation.

Types of Renovations	Electricity Consumption (kWh)	CO2 Emissions (tCO2)	PMV (Predicted Mean Vote)
Basic type of house	−1091 kWh	−0.6 tCO2	1.45
“new traditional” type of house	+2551.875 kWh	+1.403 tCO2	0.038

Note: (−) represents power consumption (emissions), (+) represents energy savings (absorption).

.

4.2. A Comprehensive Assessment of the “New Traditional” Dwellings

In order to comprehensively evaluate the overall impact of “new traditional” housing, this study employs the comprehensive evaluation method to construct an evaluation index system for the renovation of Korean ethnic dwellings based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), and determines the weights of each index [18]. On this basis, each sub-index is independently scored according to the established evaluation system using a 10-point scale converted from a percentage system (full score is 10 points, with 6 points or above considered qualified). The scoring data are derived from expert evaluations and resident feedback. Finally, the scores of all indices are aggregated through weighted summation to calculate the comprehensive evaluation scores of the dwellings before and after renovation, thereby enabling quantitative analysis of the renovation outcomes [19].

4.2.1. Construction and Weight Calculation of an Evaluation Index System for Korean Dwelling Renovation Based on AHP

Part 1: Establishment of the Target Level, Criteria Level, and Indicator Level.

To ensure a more accurate assessment of index weights, this study proposes a three-tier evaluation system for Korean residential renovation. The target level is the overall renovation performance [20]. The criteria level includes three categories: technical performance, economic viability [21], and appearance preservation and spatial comfort [22]. The indicator level consists of six specific metrics: energy saving rate, system energy consumption ratio, payback period, initial investment cost, traditional appearance preservation [23], and spatial comfort (as detailed in

Table 6. Establishment of the target level, criteria level, and indicators level.

Evaluation Index System A: Target Level for Korean House Renovation
technical performance (B1)		economic viability (B2)		appearance preservation and spatial comfort (B3)
energy saving rate (C1)	system energy consumption ratio (C2)	payback period (C3)	initial investment cost (C4)	traditional appearance preservation (C5)	spatial comfort (C6)

)

Part 2: The weights of the criteria layer and the indicator layer are calculated.

According to the established index system, the scale is determined (see Appendix A for details), and 10 experts from the fields of architectural heritage protection, construction technology, and architectural design are invited to provide scores (as detailed in Table 7, Table 8, Table 9 and Table 10)

(1)

Summary of benchmark layer results

Table 7. Comparing and scoring of technical performance (B1) and economic viability (B2).

Scale	Number	Scale	Number
1	5	1
3		1/3
5		1/5
7		1/7
9		1/9
2, 4, 6, 8	5	2/1, 1/4, 1/6, 1/8

Table 7. Comparing and scoring of technical performance (B1) and economic viability (B2).

Scale	Number	Scale	Number
1	5	1
3		1/3
5		1/5
7		1/7
9		1/9
2, 4, 6, 8	5	2/1, 1/4, 1/6, 1/8

Table 8. Comparing and scoring of technical performance (B1) and appearance preservation and spatial comfort (B3).

Scale	Number	Scale	Number
1	5	1
3		1/3
5		1/5
7		1/7
9		1/9
2, 4, 6, 8	5	2/1, 1/4, 1/6, 1/8	1

Table 8. Comparing and scoring of technical performance (B1) and appearance preservation and spatial comfort (B3).

Scale	Number	Scale	Number
1	5	1
3		1/3
5		1/5
7		1/7
9		1/9
2, 4, 6, 8	5	2/1, 1/4, 1/6, 1/8	1

Table 9. Comparing and scoring of economic viability (B2) and appearance preservation and spatial comfort (B3).

Scale	Number	Scale	Number
1	8	1
3		1/3
5		1/5
7		1/7
9		1/9
2, 4, 6, 8	2	2/1, 1/4, 1/6, 1/8

Table 9. Comparing and scoring of economic viability (B2) and appearance preservation and spatial comfort (B3).

Scale	Number	Scale	Number
1	8	1
3		1/3
5		1/5
7		1/7
9		1/9
2, 4, 6, 8	2	2/1, 1/4, 1/6, 1/8

(2)

Judgment matrix and consistency test

Table 10. General judgment matrix.

	Technical Performance (B1)	Economic Viability (B2)	Appearance Preservation and Spatial Comfort (B3)
technical performance (B1)	1	1.38	1.33
economic viability (B2)	0.725	1	1
appearance preservation and spatial comfort (B3)	0.752	1	1

Table 10. General judgment matrix.

	Technical Performance (B1)	Economic Viability (B2)	Appearance Preservation and Spatial Comfort (B3)
technical performance (B1)	1	1.38	1.33
economic viability (B2)	0.725	1	1
appearance preservation and spatial comfort (B3)	0.752	1	1

The weights were calculated using the sum method: technical (B1) = 0.4, economy (B2) = 0.3, appearance protection and comfort (B3) = 0.3.

Conformance check (CR)

Compute ${\mathsf{\lambda }}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{x}}$:

$${\mathsf{\lambda }}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{x}}=\sum _{\mathrm{i}=1}^3{\displaystyle \frac{{\left(\mathrm{Aw}\right)}_{\mathrm{i}}}{{\mathrm{w}}_{\mathrm{i}}}}$$

According to the mean stochastic consistency index, when = 3.001; CI = 0.0005; RI = 0.58 (n = 3); CR = CI/RI, 0.00086 < 0.1, can meet the consistency requirements.

In the same way, the weights of the index layer are calculated, and the weights of the benchmark layer and the index layer are shown in

Table 11. Summary of the weight coefficients of each indicator.

Target Layer Proportion	Benchmark Layer Weights	Indicator Layer Proportion
Target Level for Korean House Renovation A = 1	technical performance (B1) = 0.4	energy saving rate (C1) = 0.6, system energy consumption ratio (C2) = 0.4
	economic viability (B2) = 0.3	payback period (C3) = 0.5, initial investment cost (C4) = 0.5
	appearance preservation and spatial comfort (B3) = 0.3	traditional appearance preservation (C5) = 0.5, spatial comfort (C6) = 0.5

.

4.2.2. Scoring Methods and Quantitative Models

Part 1: Quantitative methods of energy saving rate, system energy consumption ratio, payback period, cost and comfort and other indicators.

(1)

To achieve unified quantification of multiple indicators, the linear normalization mapping method is adopted. The actual values of indicators such as energy saving rate, system energy consumption ratio, payback period, initial investment cost, spatial comfort, and others are converted into scores on a 0–10 point scale. For positive indicators (the higher, the better) and negative indicators (the lower, the better), the following formulas are used, respectively:

Positive indicators (e.g., energy savings, comfort)

$${\mathrm{S}}_{\mathrm{i}}=\min \left(10,{\displaystyle \frac{{\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{i}}-{\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{n}}}{{\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{x}}-{\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{n}}}}\times 10\right)$$

Negative indicators (e.g., system energy consumption ratio, payback period, cost)

$${\mathrm{S}}_{\mathrm{i}}=\min \left(10,{\displaystyle \frac{{\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{x}}-{\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{i}}}{{\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{x}}-{\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{n}}}}\times 10\right)$$

Among them, ${\mathrm{S}}_{\mathrm{i}}$ is the score of item i, which is the actual value, and ${\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{n}}$ and ${\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{x}}$ are the minimum acceptable value and ideal target value of the indicator, respectively (see

Table 12. Benchmark value setting for normalization of evaluation indicators.

Indicator Layer C	Ideal Value (10 Points)	Minimum Value (10 Points)	Data Source/Basis
energy saving rate (C1)	≥80%	0%	“Energy Saving Design Standard for Residential Buildings in Severe Cold and Cold Areas” JGJ 26-2018 [24]
system energy consumption ratio (C2)	≤0.3	1.0	The theoretical energy efficiency ratio of ground source heat pump system is COP ≥ 3.3
payback period (C3)	≤10	≥50	Economic evaluation practice of building energy conservation projects
initial investment cost (C4)	≤10	≥20	Research on the cost of rural housing renovation in Yanbian area
spatial comfort (C6)	≤0.5	≥1.5	ISO 7730 thermal comfort standard

Note: If the actual value is better than the ideal value, the score will be capped at 10 points.

)

(2)

Data source and parameter setting.

This study is based on a simulation evaluation of an energy-saving renovation scheme for a typical Korean house (with a floor area of approximately 81 m²) in Jilin Province. Before renovation, the building lacked exterior wall insulation, had single-glazed windows and doors, and consumed 1091 kWh of electricity annually, primarily for lighting and operating household appliances.

The renovation plan adopts a photovoltaic building-integrated (BIPV) and ground-source heat pump coupled system, with the following specific configuration:

• Photovoltaic power generation system: installed capacity of 5 kW, annual power generation of about 6000 kWh, the power generation is given priority for self-consumption, surplus electricity is connected to the Internet, to achieve net zero power consumption of buildings;
• Heating/cooling system: the ground source heat pump system is adopted, and the heating performance coefficient (COP) is about 4.0, which significantly improves energy utilization efficiency;
• Thermal comfort evaluation: the PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) model was used for quantitative analysis, and the PMV = 1.45 (thermal perception was hot, poor comfort) before the modification, and the PMV = 0.038 after the modification (close to thermal neutrality, and the comfort was significantly improved);

For economic analysis, the following parameters are set:

1.

Initial investment: ground source heat pump system (80,000 yuan) photovoltaic system (40,000 yuan), a total of 120,000 yuan;

2.

Subsidy scenario assumption: considering the incentive policy of local governments for the application of renewable energy, assuming that the initial investment is subsidized by 50%, the actual user side investment is 60,000 yuan Electricity price parameters: the residential electricity price is 0.528 yuan/kWh of the first tier of electricity in Jilin Province, and the on-grid electricity price of surplus electricity is calculated at 0.30 yuan/kWh;

3.

Annual energy saving income: including self-consumption savings (1091 kWh × 0.528 yuan/kWh ≈ 576 yuan) and surplus electricity grid income (about 5000 kWh × 0.30 yuan/kWh = 1500 yuan), totaling about 2076 yuan;

4.

Static payback period: Under the condition of actual investment of 60,000 yuan after subsidy, the payback period is: 60,000 ÷ 2076 ≈ 28.9.

(3)

The scoring results of energy saving rate, system energy consumption ratio, payback period, cost, comfort and other indicators before and after renovation.

According to the above models and parameters, the energy saving rate, system energy consumption ratio, recovery period, cost, comfort and other index scores and comprehensive scores before and after the transformation are calculated, and the results are shown in

Table 13. Scoring results of energy saving rate, system energy consumption ratio, payback period, cost, and comfort before and after the renovation of Korean dwellings.

Indicator Layer C	Before the Reform, the Korean Ethnic Group Scored	After the Transformation, the Korean Ethnic Group Scored
energy saving rate (C1)	0.0	10.0
system energy consumption ratio (C2)	5.7	10.0
payback period (C3)	0.0	3.5
initial investment cost (C4)	10.0	10.0
spatial comfort (C6)	0.3	9.8

.

Part 2: Quantifying traditional appearance protection indicators.

Aiming at the qualitative index that is difficult to quantify—such as traditional appearance preservation—this paper adopts a subjective evaluation method combining expert assessment and residents’ perception. Five relevant experts and local residents in the field of Korean residential preservation were invited to rate the building’s historical and cultural value and the extent of renovation-induced damage, based on its traditional stylistic characteristics prior to renovation (such as roof form, cornice structure, color and materials, façade proportions, etc.). Ratings were made on a 10-point scale, with 6 points as the threshold to distinguish between basically acceptable and good preservation status. By statistically analyzing the mean and median as measures of central tendency for each score, and applying a weighted summation method with slightly higher weight assigned to expert evaluations, the comprehensive score for the index is calculated (as detailed in

Table 14. Scores of 5 experts on the protection of traditional appearance of Korean dwellings before renovation (C5).

Grade	Number	Grade	Number
1		6
2		7
3		8
4		9	5
5		10

,

Table 15. Scores of 5 experts on the protection of traditional appearance of Korean dwellings after renovation (C5).

Grade	Number	Grade	Number
1		6	5
2		7
3		8
4		9
5		10

,

Table 16. Scores of 5 local residents on the protection of the traditional appearance of Korean houses before renovation (C5).

Grade	Number	Grade	Number
1		6
2		7
3		8
4		9
5		10	5

,

Table 17. Scores of 5 local residents on the protection of the traditional appearance of Korean dwellings before the renovation (C5).

Grade	Number	Grade	Number
1		6
2		7	5
3		8
4		9
5		10

and

Table 18. Scores before and after the renovation of traditional appearance protection (C5) of Korean houses based on the evaluation of experts and residents.

Types of Dwellings	Expert Weight	Average Score From Experts	Resident Weight	Average Score of Residents	Composite Score (Total Score)
Before the reform, the Korean ethnic group scored	0.6	4.5	0.4	5	4.7
After the transformation, the Korean ethnic group scored	0.6	3	0.4	3.5	3.2

)

This enables the quantitative transformation of qualitative information and supports subsequent overall performance evaluation.

Part 3: Based on the quantitative scores of the aforementioned indicators and their corresponding weights, the weighted summation method is used to calculate the comprehensive scores of each index layer (as shown in

Table 19. Summary of final scoring.

Indicator Layer (A)	Weight	Before the Reform, the Korean Ethnic Group Scored	After the Transformation, the Korean Ethnic Group Scored
energy saving rate (C1)	0.6	0	6
system energy consumption ratio (C2)	0.4	2.28	4
payback period (C3)	0.5	0	1.75
initial investment cost (C4)	0.5	5	5
traditional appearance preservation (C5)	0.5	2.35	1.8
spatial comfort (6)	0.5	0.15	4.49

)

4.2.3. Based on the AHP Method and Expert Scoring Method, the Comprehensive Evaluation Score of Korean Houses Before and After Renovation Was Obtained

Comprehensive evaluation index formula:

$$\mathrm{Composite} \mathrm{score} = {\sum }_{i=1}^n\left(W_i\times S_i\right)$$

w_i: the weight of the i-th dimension. (Index weights calculated according to analytic hierarchy process); S_i: standard score for the i-th dimension (as detailed in

Table 20. A comprehensive evaluation of the houses before and after the renovation was carried out.

Benchmark Layers B	Weight	Before the Reform, the Korean Ethnic Group Scored	After the Transformation, the Korean Ethnic Group Scored
technical performance (B1)	0.4	0.912	4
economic viability (B2)	0.3	1.5	2.025
appearance preservation and spatial comfort (B3)	0.3	0.75	1.887
		3.162	7.912

) (Weighted scores of each indicator based on field research, expert evaluation and resident feedback).

According to the comprehensive evaluation results, the overall performance of the new traditional Korean houses is significantly superior to that of traditional houses, with a composite score of 7.912 compared to 3.162 for the latter.

At the criterion level, the new traditional houses demonstrate particularly outstanding performance in technical efficiency, scoring 4 compared to 0.912 for traditional houses. This improvement is primarily attributed to an increase in the energy saving rate—from 0% before renovation to 100%—and a significant optimization of the system energy consumption ratio, which rose from 2.28 to 4. These enhancements indicate the adoption of more advanced energy-saving technologies and integrated system solutions, greatly improving overall energy efficiency.

From the perspective of economic feasibility, new traditional houses score 2.025 points—significantly higher than the 1.5 points scored by traditional houses—indicating superior overall economic performance. Although the adoption of new technologies increases initial construction costs, the initial investment score remains unchanged, suggesting that cost control is still within a reasonable range and does not impose a significant burden on project initiation. More notably, the payback period score has improved from 0 to 3.5 points, reflecting stronger operational profitability and faster cost recovery for new traditional houses. Overall, while effectively managing upfront investment, these houses significantly enhance long-term economic benefits. They demonstrate high economic feasibility and strong potential for sustainable development.

Regarding esthetic preservation and spatial comfort, the new traditional houses scored 1.887, higher than the 0.75 achieved by traditional houses. Notably, spatial comfort improved dramatically—from 0.15 to 4.49—demonstrating significant enhancements in indoor thermal conditions and overall living quality. However, the score for traditional esthetic preservation declined from 2.35 to 1.8, revealing challenges in maintaining traditional architectural styles during modernization. This highlights the need for more deliberate design strategies that better integrate and preserve cultural elements through innovative approaches.

In summary, the new traditional Korean houses have achieved substantial advancements in technical performance; economic viability and occupant comfort, demonstrating strong potential for sustainable development. Moving forward, while maintaining economic viability, greater emphasis should be placed on safeguarding traditional architectural features to achieve a balanced optimization of technological innovation, economic efficiency, and cultural heritage.

5. Conclusions

This study set out to address a critical challenge in China’s rural revitalization and dual carbon agenda: how to modernize traditional dwellings—specifically Chinese–Korean houses in border regions—without compromising cultural identity. By integrating building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) and ground-source heat pump (GSHP) technologies, we developed and validated a “New Traditional” housing model that simultaneously advances energy efficiency, thermal comfort, and architectural heritage preservation.

Our findings demonstrate that the strategic deployment of BIPV modules on roofs, walls, and auxiliary structures achieves an average annual power output sufficient to power the GSHP system (COP > 4.0), household appliances, and elevate electricity self-sufficiency to over 100%. The GSHP system delivers heating and cooling with significant energy savings compared to conventional air conditioning, reducing both operational costs and greenhouse gas emissions. Crucially, thermal comfort analysis shows that indoor PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) values improve from 1.45 (indicating cold discomfort) to −0.038 (near-neutral) in winter, significantly enhancing livability in cold climates.

These results confirm that our integrated BIPV-GSHP system is not only technically effective but also economically viable. More importantly, the design respects and reinterprets traditional architectural forms—such as sloped roofs and courtyard layouts—demonstrating that cultural sensitivity and technological innovation can coexist. This dual contribution positions the “New Traditional” model as a replicable prototype for sustainable transformation in heritage-sensitive, rural contexts.

However, widespread adoption requires targeted policy intervention. Key barriers—including high upfront costs, regulatory misalignment, technical capacity gaps, and esthetic resistance—can only be overcome through coordinated support: (1) financial incentives such as upfront subsidies, tax exemptions, and green financing; (2) technical training programs for local contractors and maintenance personnel; (3) adaptive building codes that accommodate BIPV integration in heritage zones; and (4) public engagement initiatives to build community trust and acceptance.

By aligning technological advancement with cultural continuity and policy enablement, this study offers more than an energy solution—it presents a holistic pathway for sustainable, inclusive, and identity-preserving rural development. As China and other nations strive toward carbon neutrality, such culturally grounded, low-carbon housing models will be essential to achieving equitable and resilient transitions in rural communities.