Enhancing Place Attachment Through Natural Design in Sports Venues: The Roles of Nature Connectedness and Biophilia

Abstract

With the rise of green building and biophilic design, how sports venues enhance users’ place attachment through natural design features has become a critical interdisciplinary research topic in architecture and environmental psychology. This study adopts an integrated perspective of environmental psychology and architectural psychology to investigate the impact mechanism of natural design features (natural visibility, integration, and interactivity) on place attachment. Using a maximum likelihood-based structural equation model with a sample of 1022 users of waterside sports venues, this research pioneers the construction and validation of a parallel mediation model involving nature connectedness and biophilia. The findings reveal that (1) natural visibility, integration, and interactivity all significantly and positively influence place attachment; (2) nature connectedness mediates the relationship between natural design features and place attachment; and (3) biophilia also mediates the effect of natural design features on place attachment. This study makes a groundbreaking contribution by uncovering the dual-path “perception-emotion” mechanism through which natural design elements influence users’ psychological responses. The results provide empirical support for the refined application of nature-embedded strategies in architectural design and offer direct guidance for enhancing the social sustainability of high-density urban waterfront public spaces.

1. Introduction

In recent years, green design concepts have profoundly reshaped the development trajectory of the sports architecture industry [1,2]. Whether it is the wooden roof and solar power system used in the Paris Olympic Aquatics Center [3,4], the near-zero carbon renovation achieved by the Guangzhou Tianhe Sports Center through photovoltaic curtain walls, or the Climate Pledge Arena in Seattle obtaining the world’s first zero-carbon certification, these landmark projects all confirm one fact: sustainability has evolved from a pioneering concept to an industry benchmark [5,6,7]. Even ordinary venues that have not yet obtained green building certification are actively incorporating low-tech strategies such as vertical greening and ecological paving, making environmental elements a standard feature rather than an optional one in modern sports venues. This aligns with the era’s demand for the construction industry to transition toward environmentally friendly practices in the context of global climate change [8].

In this transformation process, the creative use of natural elements has opened up new dimensions in design. More and more venues are beginning to focus on the creation of water features, the use of native plants, and the application of ecological materials [9]. While these measures improve the quality of space, they also expose obvious gaps in research. Current academic attention is overly focused on quantitative indicators of energy-saving technology, such as the accuracy of energy consumption monitoring systems or the conversion efficiency of photovoltaic panels [10], while lacking systematic exploration of the psychological experience of users [11]. The architectural community usually evaluates design outcomes from a technical performance perspective, while the field of environmental psychology focuses more on place attachment in residential communities or tourist attractions. This division between disciplines has led to the emotional value of sports venues, a special type of building, being neglected for a long time [12]. Especially for waterfront sports venues, which are spaces that combine public activity attributes with ecological sensitivity, existing research has neither clarified the formation mechanism of place attachment nor explained how natural design features reinforce this emotional connection through psychological pathways. This gap in knowledge directly constrains the precise optimization of people-centered sustainable design strategies. Based on this, we have identified and addressed a fundamental theoretical disconnect: while architectural studies focus on technical metrics and environmental psychology examines residential communities, the emotional value of sports venues—particularly those incorporating water features—remains underexplored. Our research specifically investigates how natural design characteristics (visibility, integration, and interactivity) foster place attachment in these hybrid ecological–recreational spaces.

Waterfront sports venues, with their unique geographical location, provide an ideal case study for this research. Take the Guangdong Olympic Sports Center as an example: its 180,000-square-meter green space system and artificial lake form an ecological foundation that significantly improves the microclimate environment [13]. This environment is also more likely to strengthen users’ connection with nature through multiple channels, such as visual contact and participation in activities. However, the psychological mechanisms behind this synergy remain unclear. Questions such as whether design features such as the visibility of natural elements and methods of contact influence place attachment through cognitive connectedness to nature, emotional biological affinity, or a combination of both, urgently need to be answered through empirical research.

Building upon this background, this study investigated 1022 users of waterfront sports venues in China by developing and testing a novel parallel mediation model to enhance methodological rigor. Expanding on previous work concerning connectedness to nature and biophilic affinity, we demonstrated how these parallel psychological mechanisms explain the relationship between design features and place attachment, representing a theoretical integration previously unexamined in sports venue contexts. Moving beyond generic sustainability assessments, we established evidence-based principles for designing sports facilities that optimize both ecological performance and human experience. The findings confirmed the direct effects of natural visibility, integration, and interactivity while revealing the crucial mediating roles of nature connectedness and biophilic affinity. This research provides scientific evidence for the health and comfort criteria in future green building evaluation standards and offers practical guidance for enhancing social sustainability in urban public spaces within high-density environments.

2. Literature Review and Research Hypothesis

2.1. Water in Biophilic Design

Water has long been regarded as one of the most powerful elements in biophilic design, capable of having a profound impact on human sensory and emotional experiences [14]. It is widely believed that water features can significantly reduce stress, improve mood, enhance cognitive function, and promote relaxation [15]. On a sensory level, studies have shown that the flow of water and the rhythm of its sounds provide a space with natural stimulation that is continuously changing yet predictable. This quality can evoke the innate human “affinity for water,” reducing psychological tension, stabilizing emotions, and creating a meditative sense of relaxation [16]. As Nevzati et al. pointed out, indoor water elements in educational buildings have been shown to reduce stress levels and improve users’ well-being. Their study found that, regardless of gender, users considered the water features at the building entrance to be beneficial [17]. These water features enhanced the spatial appeal and, in an intangible way, created a “psychological buffer zone” that helped users transition their mental state when entering or leaving the building, thereby reducing fatigue and improving concentration [18]. Meanwhile, water also plays an important role in environmental regulation. Yang et al. developed a numerical model that combines building energy consumption simulation with computational fluid dynamics to quantify the effects of waterfalls and ponds in public buildings. Their findings showed that water elements such as waterfalls significantly enhanced evaporative cooling in summer, while also improving thermal and humidity conditions and reducing energy consumption [19]. This suggests that integrating water features with sustainable building strategies is feasible and provides a reference for future climate-adaptive design. In public and outdoor spaces, water features also possess a social–functional attribute. Mador explored the psychological impacts of biophilic design, emphasizing that the presence of water in architectural spaces can enhance residents’ well-being [20]. At the same time, water features often serve as visual focal points and gathering spots in public areas, supporting functions such as leisure, education, socializing, and cultural activities. They can foster community interaction and a sense of place, thereby enhancing the vibrancy of the area [21].

As a typical example of large-scale public facilities, sports venues present unique opportunities for the integration of water elements due to their spatial characteristics and usage requirements. In outdoor spectator areas and plaza spaces, fountains, water curtains, and misting systems not only create a sense of ceremony at the venue entrance, but also provide significant cooling and humidity regulation during hot weather [22]. Some international event main stadiums incorporate interactive water features along major pedestrian thoroughfares [23]. In the commercial and public amenity areas of a venue, water elements help create gathering nodes, extend visitors’ dwell time, and enhance the operational value of the facility [24]. As advocated in today’s green building technologies, when combined with rainwater collection, storage, and recycling systems, water features in sports venues can achieve sustainable water supply while beautifying the environment, offering the environmentally friendly and clean attributes of resource reuse, and promoting the sustainable development of sports facilities [25,26].

2.2. Natural Design Features of Waterfront Sports Venues and Place Attachment

The natural design features of waterfront sports venues refer to a systematic design strategy that transforms aquatic environments into quantifiable experiential mediums through architectural–ecological synergy [27]. These features embody an organic integration of built and natural environments, converting water elements into perceptible spatial experiences through methodical design approaches [28,29]. Rooted in the intersection of environmental psychology and ecological design theory, this design philosophy aims to create spatial environments with a profound sense of place. In this study, the natural design features manifest through three interrelated dimensions: Natural Visibility, achieved through architectural layout and interface design to ensure visual accessibility of water landscapes; Natural Integration, reflected in the harmonious unity of building materials, formal language, and aquatic environments; and Natural Interaction, facilitated through participatory methods.

Place attachment is defined as a multidimensional, affective–cognitive bond that individuals or groups form with particular physical environments [30]. It is a comprehensive psychological process whereby a person develops a sense of identification, dependence, and belonging toward a physical space [31]. This concept originated in psychology and is widely applied in fields such as architecture and urban planning [32,33]. Mainstream research believes that place attachment consists of two basic dimensions: place identity, which reflects the extent to which individuals incorporate places into their self-concept system; and place dependence, which measures the uniqueness and irreplaceability of places in meeting individuals’ functional needs [34,35]. In subsequent studies, some scholars expanded the dimensional system by adding Affective Attachment and Social Bonding [36]. The development of place attachment demonstrates a clear temporal accumulation effect. As proposed in Scannell and Gifford’s tripartite framework (person–process–place), the strength of attachment follows a non-linear progression with duration of use: initially stimulated by novelty-seeking behavior, then consolidated through repeated engagement, and eventually sustained by emotional investment and sunk costs [37]. This developmental pattern is particularly evident in waterfront sports venues [38]. Early-stage users are typically drawn to the scenic waterside setting, where the visual appeal of the aquatic environment creates initial attraction [39]. Through regular visits and exercise routines, this superficial interest gradually transforms into deeper functional and emotional connections [40]. Ultimately, long-term users develop such strong place bonds that they remain attached even when the facilities become outdated or less competitive—a phenomenon demonstrating how place attachment evolves from casual preference to profound dependence. In recent years, place attachment has been regarded as an important mediating variable that influences a series of outcome variables such as user satisfaction, behavioral intentions, and environmentally responsible behavior. It has shown a significant influence in sports, tourism, and leisure venues related to the natural environment [41,42].

Environmental psychology research shows that humans have an innate affinity for water bodies. This “hydrophilicity” influences individuals’ perception of space and emotional responses through visual, interactive, and contextual integration [43].

Therefore, focusing on the natural design characteristics of water areas, this article discusses three key dimensions: First, from the perspective of perception, natural visibility is the most direct way for users to experience the water environment. Empirical research has found that the visual accessibility of water bodies significantly influences users’ psychological responses and sense of place identity. This influence is not only determined by whether one “sees” the water body but is also closely related to perspective, viewing distance, and the continuity of the visual field. For example, Warzecha and Lime’s study in Canyonlands National Park found that visual experiences in natural environments (such as river landscapes) can significantly enhance emotional and functional attachment [44]. In addition, in urban natural spaces, visual natural elements have been proven to enhance residents’ emotional connection to and frequency of use of the space. For example, Ryan’s study explored the impact of environmental experiences in urban natural areas on place attachment and found that visual contact with nature is a key factor in residents forming emotional connections to a space and influences their usage behavior and attitudes [45]. Second, visual contact alone is not enough to form a deep emotional connection. Natural integration emphasizes the strength of the relationship between water bodies and architectural spaces and the manner of their integration. When water bodies are only used as decorative elements on the exterior of buildings, their impact is often limited to the aesthetic level. However, when water bodies are integrated into the interior spaces of buildings, they can enhance the sense of place on a cognitive level. Related studies have pointed out that the degree of integration between architecture and the natural environment significantly affects participants’ place loyalty and emotional attachment, which is particularly evident in sports or tourism scenarios. For example, a coastal study in East Tasmania by Jayakody et al. pointed out that the symbiosis between the natural environment and human activity space is a key source of place attachment. Participants emphasized that the “integrative experience” of the natural landscape is one of the main mechanisms for creating emotional connections [46]. Furthermore, Daneshgarmoghaddam and Bahrainy’s research points out that the spatial integration of natural landscape elements (such as gardens and water bodies) with architecture enhances residents’ sense of identity and belonging to the space, and that the integrated experience improves the perception of environmental quality, which is an important factor influencing place attachment [47]. Third, natural interaction reflects the process of deepening the experience from passive observation to active participation. In waterfront sports venues, water is not only a landscape element, but also a medium for participation. Its interactive design (such as wading paths, water-friendly platforms, activity areas, etc.) will significantly enhance users’ sense of participation and belonging. Research has shown that visitors engaging in interactive experiences in natural environments, such as water sports and water-based recreational activities, can help strengthen environmental attachment and behavioral intent [48,49]. A survey of 717 Scottish open water swimmers found that this natural form of interaction, which involves directly entering the water to engage in activities, not only enhances physical health but also significantly improves mental well-being, social connections, and emotional attachment to the aquatic environment [50]. Based on this, this paper proposes the following hypotheses:

H1: 

Natural visibility positively affects place attachment to waterfront sports venues.

H2: 

Natural integration positively affects place attachment to waterfront sports venues.

H3: 

Natural interaction positively affects place attachment to waterfront sports venues.

2.3. The Mediating Role of Connectedness to Nature

Nature connectedness refers to the emotional, cognitive, and experiential connection between individuals and the natural environment as perceived by the individuals themselves. It is a core concept in fields such as environmental psychology, ecological architecture, and urban design. Scholars generally believe that nature connectedness is not just a static attitude, but rather a perceptual state that can be activated. Visual contact, physical participation, spatial integration, and emotional responses can all trigger nature connectedness [51]. A high level of perceived connectedness to nature is closely related to an individual’s sense of well-being, resilience, and willingness to engage in sustainable behavior [52]. In the field of architecture and spatial design, connectedness to nature is becoming an important way to guide users’ perception of places and the construction of emotions. Architectural scholars have concretized this into a perceptible design language, such as through the use of natural materials, facade openings, changes in light and shadow, guidance of sightlines, and the introduction of water features, to give users a genuine feeling of “natural participation” in the architectural space [53]. As a typical natural built space intersection, the design and usage characteristics of waterfront sports venues make the perception of connectedness to nature more multidimensional and meaningful. On the one hand, water landscapes have high visual appeal and a calming effect, which helps to enhance the perceived value of the space. On the other hand, sports activities themselves are highly physical, allowing users to immerse themselves in a natural experience through interaction. The higher the degree of integration between architecture and water bodies, the easier it is for users to form a sense of dependence and emotional identification with the space during use. This “active connectedness to nature” has also been proven to be an important mechanism for promoting place attachment [54].

Visual accessibility is the most direct channel for forming connectedness to nature. In terms of natural visibility, Li et al. conducted an experiment involving participants who could see at least three trees outside their windows and found that a green view outside the window can effectively enhance an individual’s level of connectedness to nature, and that this sense of connection further promotes their emotional state and sense of spatial identity, verifying the smooth logical chain from natural visual accessibility to connectedness to nature to psychological response [55]. Compared to passive contact on a visual level, the degree of integration between architectural space and the natural environment may further influence the depth and sustainability of connectedness to nature. When natural landscapes are not only visual objects but are also incorporated into architectural structures, forming spatial interaction and integration, users are more likely to establish a stable and profound experience of connectedness to nature [56]. As Duffy points out, when natural elements such as green walls, open spaces, and natural lighting are integrated into building structures, they can more directly promote connectedness to nature while improving health and well-being [57]. Connectedness to nature does not only come from viewing or perception, but can also be continuously strengthened through physical participation and interaction with the natural environment. In waterfront sports venues, water activities and water-friendly paths provide users with opportunities for interaction with nature. This proactive experience of nature helps to enhance their sense of connectedness to nature and further transforms into emotional attachment to the place. As one study points out, providing water–enjoyable–space designs in urban waterfront spaces, such as shallow beaches, walkways, and water play areas, helps stimulate people’s sensory engagement and psychological satisfaction with water bodies, enhances emotional interaction with nature, and promotes the formation of place attachment [58].

The dual-process theory states that human thinking and behavior are driven by two different processing systems. This theory was first proposed by psychologists to explain how humans make judgments and decisions when faced with complex information. Its core idea is that human cognition is not a single process, but rather two interacting systems: fast intuition and slow rationality [59]. On the one hand, people rely on a fast, automated intuitive system to respond instantly to their surroundings (System 1); on the other hand, they also activate a slow, thoughtful rational system for more complex cognitive processing (System 2). This dual mechanism enables humans to respond quickly to environmental changes while also engaging in deep thinking [60]. In the field of environmental psychology, this theory is particularly useful in explaining how people connect with the natural environment through different psychological pathways and form emotional attachments to specific places.

From a System 2 perspective, the formation of connectedness to nature often requires a gradual process. When individuals repeatedly encounter natural elements in a specific place, they gradually establish a psychological connection with the natural environment through conscious cognitive processing [61]. Take waterfront sports venues as an example. Through continuous exercise, users will gradually recognize the positive impact of the aquatic environment on their exercise results and mental state. This rational understanding will promote the establishment of connectedness to nature. Based on this, this paper proposes the following hypotheses:

H4: 

Connectedness to nature mediates the effect of natural visibility on place attachment.

H5: 

Connectedness to nature mediates the effect of natural integration on place attachment.

H6: 

Connectedness to nature mediates the effect of natural interaction on place attachment.

2.4. The Mediating Role of Biological Affinity

Biological affinity refers to the innate attraction and emotional connection that humans have to natural life forms and ecosystems [62]. This concept originates from the biophilia hypothesis proposed by Edward O. Wilson in 1984, which posits that humans have developed a deep psychological need for natural environments during the course of evolution. Its core tenet is that humans have an instinctive positive response to natural elements such as green plants, water bodies, and sunlight. This response is rapid and automatic, capable of eliciting emotional changes without conscious thought [63].

Biological affinity plays a key role in the relationship between humans and the environment. In the process of forming natural elements and place attachment, in recent years, many studies have shown that visual, auditory, and physical contact with natural elements can stimulate biological affinity, thereby influencing people’s emotional attachment to specific places.

From the perspective of natural visibility, Mousighichi et al. surveyed 378 college students to assess how their visual, physical, and auditory connections with nature affected their place attachment and quality of life. The results showed that visual connectedness to nature (such as natural light, greenery, and natural views) was significantly associated with students’ sense of place dependence and physical health, while auditory connectedness to nature had a greater impact on place identity. This suggests that the visual accessibility of nature enhances people’s emotional connection and identification with a space by stimulating biological affinity [64]. Similarly, Hung and Chang’s research shows that visual natural features stimulate positive emotions and are highly correlated with people’s identification with and fondness for a place [65].

From the perspective of natural integration, a study organized focus groups to discuss community residents’ views on natural integration urban design in the context of a proposed biological affinity urban renewal project in Wales, UK. The results showed that community members expressed high expectations for the integration of nature into space in terms of the history, identity, and future vision of the site. The “structural integration” of nature helps to strengthen the identity of the place and stimulate “place emotions from a biological affinity perspective” [66]. Gasaymeh’s research indicates that incorporating natural elements into public buildings can significantly enhance users’ emotional satisfaction and sense of attachment to the place [67].

From the perspective of natural interaction, Cole theoretically explored how biological affinity strategies in green buildings affect users’ emotional attachment to a place, functional dependence, and sense of identity. Cole pointed out that biological affinity is not just aesthetics. Through the emotional interaction between nature and people, it promotes people to regard “natural buildings” as places where they have a sense of belonging and identity, thereby strengthening place attachment [68]. Similarly, Cengiz and Boz studied how children’s physical interaction with nature in “biological affinity playgrounds” promotes environmental identification and emotional attachment. The study pointed out that children’s free play with natural materials such as water, soil, stones, and trees naturally stimulates a sense of “exploratory biological affinity,” which further guides their attachment to the playground [69].

System 1 (intuition/emotion system) of the dual-process theory is a fast, automatic cognitive processing mode that relies on intuition, emotion, and instinctive reactions and can be completed without conscious effort [61]. In other words, the natural elements in waterfront sports venues can directly evoke users’ instinctive biological affinity responses, because biological affinity is a natural human tendency toward nature [70]. When users first enter the venue, the expansive view of the water immediately triggers visual pleasure. This positive emotional response to the water landscape is immediate and automatic, requiring no conscious thought whatsoever [71].

Similarly, when architectural design seamlessly integrates with aquatic environments, users instinctively experience the comfort derived from this harmonious relationship. For instance, the design of waterfront platforms naturally draws people closer to the water. During use, if the venue provides opportunities for interaction with water, such as water sports facilities or waterfront recreation areas, this direct physical contact will further strengthen the instinctive connection between users and the natural environment. This instinctive response based on biological affinity forms the initial basis for users to establish an emotional connection with waterfront sports venues. In other words, the natural visibility features of the venue activate users’ instinctive preference for water, providing an emotional basis for the subsequent formation of place attachment; natural integration strengthens this emotional connection by satisfying users’ primal need for a harmonious environment; and natural interaction deepens positive feelings on an instinctive level through direct personal experience. Based on this, this paper proposes the following hypotheses (the proposed model diagram is shown in Figure 1):

H7: 

Biological affinity mediates the relationship between natural visibility and place attachment.

H8: 

Biological affinity mediates the relationship between natural integration and place attachment.

H9: 

Biological affinity mediates the relationship between natural interaction and place attachment.

3. Research Design

3.1. Recipients and Questionnaire Distribution

This study employed a multi-stage sampling method to conduct questionnaire surveys among users of waterfront sports venues in Chinese coastal cities. For sample selection, we comprehensively considered geographical distribution and economic development levels, selecting eight representative coastal cities including Qingdao, Dalian, and Xiamen as research areas. The survey subjects were limited to general citizens aged 18–65 who visited the target venues at least three times per month, a criterion verified through on-site checks of membership information or usage records. To ensure sample representativeness, the study excluded professional athletes and venue staff, focusing specifically on the general public.

When identifying the research venues, the study applied the following criteria to select waterfront sports facilities with prominent natural design features, meeting at least one of the following standards: First, the architectural design explicitly incorporates biophilic design elements (such as green landscapes, natural lighting, water interaction zones, etc.); Second, the venue has received municipal-level or higher awards for green building or ecological design; Third, the building has been confirmed by an expert evaluation team through on-site inspection as meeting natural design standards. The study followed the Helsinki Principles and was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chongqing University (Approval No. CQU-2024-1016), and all recipients completed a paper version of the informed consent form. Data collection was completed between February 2025 and April 2025 and was executed by eight professionally trained investigators. Questionnaire distribution was carried out by random on-site interception, and the survey was arranged in a balanced manner at different times of the week. In terms of quality control, a double filtering mechanism was set up to ensure that respondents had actually been exposed to the natural design of the venue: First, a filter question was set at the beginning of the questionnaire “Do you notice any of the following natural design elements in the venue?” and five typical features were listed, and respondents were asked to check at least two of them before continuing; Second, a demographic question was added after the questionnaire “Describe the natural features of the venue that impress you the most”, and responses that were not filled in or clearly incorrect were excluded. A total of 1145 questionnaires were distributed and 1098 questionnaires were collected, of which 1022 were valid, with a validity rate of 93.07%. At the data entry stage, 76 questionnaires that did not meet the requirements were finally eliminated through a combination of logical checking and manual review. In order to reduce the sampling bias, the research paid special attention to the distribution of users in different use periods and areas to ensure that the samples can fully reflect the real characteristics of the users of the venues. The specific demographic information is shown in

Table 1. Descriptive analysis table.

Variables	Option	Frequency	Proportion (%)
Gender	Male	529	51.76
	Female	493	48.23
Age	18–25 years	385	37.67
	26–35 years	315	30.82
	36–45 years	207	20.25
	46 and above	115	11.25
Marital status	Unmarried	611	59.78
	Married	411	40.22
Household Registration	City	513	50.20
	Suburbs	206	20.16
	Rural	303	29.65
Education	Undergraduate	615	60.18
	Master and above	99	9.69
	Specialized and below	308	30.14

below.

3.2. Variable Measurement

All variables in this study were measured using internationally validated scales that underwent systematic localization procedures. The scales employed a 5-point Likert scoring system (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree), with targeted adaptations made to align with the usage scenarios and cultural characteristics of waterfront sports facilities in China while preserving the core theoretical constructs. The adaptation process strictly followed the three-phase principle of “theoretical alignment—cultural adaptation—contextual adaptation,” with documented modification records at each stage.

(1) For measuring natural visibility, this study integrated Ulrich’s visual contact theory [72] and Xiao et al.’s scale, operationally defining it as “the degree to which users directly perceive natural elements such as water bodies/greenery through visual contact.” Two core items from the original scale were retained, while two new items specific to waterscapes were added (e.g., “During exercise, I can easily enjoy the water views around the venue”). Focus group discussions revealed that Chinese users exhibit higher sensitivity to waterscapes than to generic natural landscapes, leading to modifications such as replacing “seeing trees” with “seeing water features and greenery.”

(2) For assessing natural integration, this study built upon Kellert’s biophilic design theory [73], with an emphasis on measuring the coherence between aquatic environments and sports spaces. A representative item includes “The transitional design between the swimming pool and rest areas feels natural and smooth.” To improve comprehension, three items containing architectural jargon were removed and replaced with two sports-contextualized statements (e.g., “The transitional design between the pool and rest areas (e.g., greenery partitions, water sound guidance) feels natural to me”).

(3) The measurement of natural interactivity combined Kaplan’s nature interaction scale [74] and Ryan’s outdoor activity frequency scale [75]. Original items like “gardening activities” were replaced with “using fitness equipment integrated with greenery,” and localized items such as “I frequently use the nature-integrated jogging trails in this venue” were added. A double-blind back-translation procedure ensured conceptual equivalence. All scale adaptations followed international translation-back-translation standards and were validated through focus group discussions with 12 frequent users of waterfront sports facilities to ensure both academic rigor and contextual relevance.

(4) Mediating variables were measured using cross-culturally validated short-form scales, including Mayer et al.’s Connectedness to Nature Scale [76] and Cao et al.’s Green Stadium Nature Connection Scale [77]. Wording was optimized to match sports facility users’ cognitive habits (e.g., “The natural design of this venue deepens my awareness of the interdependence between human activity and ecosystems.”). Biophilic elements were assessed using Xiao et al.’s biophilic scale for wooden stadiums [78], adapted by replacing wooden elements with waterfront features (e.g., “Seeing water ripples or reflections in the venue instantly relaxes and pleases me.”). For the dependent variable (PA), a pre-validated place attachment scale specific to waterfront sports facilities was directly adopted [79], including items like “I would miss the time spent here after leaving this venue.”

To ensure the scientific validity of the measurement instrument, five experts in the fields of architectural psychology and sports behavior were invited to review all the scales back-to-back. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients are 0.788, 0.760, 0.767, 0.898, 0.892, and 0.933, respectively, all of which are greater than the acceptable threshold of 0.7, providing reliable measurement assurance for subsequent formal research. For clarity of presentation, a comprehensive list of variable abbreviations used throughout this study is provided in

Table 2. Key variable abbreviations in this study.

Full Variable Designation	Abbreviation
Natural Interaction	NI
Natural Integration	NX
Connectedness to Nature	CN
Biological Affinity	BA
Place Attachment	PA
Natural Visibility	NV

.

3.3. Research Procedure

This study rigorously adheres to empirical research protocols by implementing a sequential analytical approach: First, reliability and validity tests were conducted on the scale data to ensure the psychometric quality of measurement instruments. Subsequently, exploratory factor analysis was performed to preliminarily investigate the underlying structural relationships among variables. Building upon these results, confirmatory factor analysis models were constructed to validate the theoretical hypotheses. After controlling for common method bias, structural equation modeling was ultimately established to test the research hypotheses, followed by parallel mediation analysis upon model confirmation to ensure robustness. The complete analytical procedures are detailed in the Results section.

4. Result

4.1. Validity Analysis

In this study, SPSS 29.0 software was used to test the validity of the scale data. As shown in

Table 3. KMO and Bartlett’s test.

Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy		0.937
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity	Approx. Chi-Square	14,327.475
	df	276
	Sig.	0.000

, the KMO (Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin) sampling adequacy measure of the scale was 0.937, which was higher than the recommended standard of 0.8; the Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (χ² = 14,327.48, df = 276, p < 0.001), which indicated that there was sufficient correlation between the variables suitable for factor analysis. These results confirm the validity of the data and support subsequent exploratory factor analysis.

4.2. Exploratory Factor Analysis

In this study, principal component analysis (PCA) and maximum variance rotation (varimax) were used for exploratory factor analysis (EFA). As shown in

Table 4. Total variance explained.

Total Variance Explained
Component	Initial Eigenvalues			Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings			Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %
1	9.261	38.587	38.587	9.261	38.587	38.587	3.681	15.337	15.337
2	2.368	9.867	48.455	2.368	9.867	48.455	3.673	15.304	30.64
3	1.811	7.546	56.001	1.811	7.546	56.001	3.454	14.39	45.031
4	1.548	6.449	62.45	1.548	6.449	62.45	2.189	9.122	54.152
5	1.218	5.077	67.527	1.218	5.077	67.527	2.141	8.921	63.074
6	1.041	4.339	71.866	1.041	4.339	71.866	2.11	8.792	71.866
7	0.66	2.75	74.615
8	0.604	2.518	77.134
9	0.493	2.053	79.187
10	0.47	1.957	81.144
11	0.455	1.895	83.039
12	0.405	1.688	84.727
13	0.387	1.611	86.338
14	0.372	1.548	87.887
15	0.355	1.479	89.366
16	0.337	1.403	90.768
17	0.331	1.38	92.148
18	0.317	1.321	93.47
19	0.31	1.292	94.761
20	0.294	1.226	95.988
21	0.278	1.159	97.147
22	0.258	1.076	98.224
23	0.222	0.925	99.149
24	0.204	0.851	100

, based on the criterion that the characteristic root is greater than 1 (Kaiser’s criterion), a total of six public factors were extracted, and the cumulative variance explained was 71.866%, indicating that the factor structure has good explanatory power. The rotated variance contribution rates of each factor are 15.337%, 15.304%, 14.39%, 9.122%, 8.921% and 8.792%, respectively, with a balanced distribution of factor loadings and a clear structure.

From the rotated component matrix in

Table 5. Rotated component matrix.

Rotated Component Matrix
	Component
	1	2	3	4	5	6
BA5	0.807
BA3	0.785
BA1	0.784
BA4	0.777
BA2	0.756
CN2		0.811
CN5		0.8
CN3		0.785
CN1		0.766
CN4		0.764
PA4			0.767
PA5			0.763
PA2			0.761
PA3			0.739
PA1			0.734
NV1				0.832
NV2				0.812
NV3				0.734
NX1					0.788
NX3					0.78
NX2					0.773
NI2						0.788
NI1						0.777
NI3						0.767

, it can be seen that the factor loadings of all the question items are higher than 0.7, and the commonalities are all greater than 0.4, indicating that the correlation between each measurement item and the corresponding factor is strong and the factor structure is stable. According to the distribution of factor loadings and the theoretical meanings of the items, the six common factors were finally named as follows: the six common factors were named as BA, CN, PA, NV, NX, and NI, respectively.

4.3. Validation Factor Analysis

In this study, AMOS 26.0 was used to conduct a validation factor analysis (CFA) to test the structural validity of the measurement model. As shown in

Table 6. Validated factor model fit.

Model Fit	Adaptation Criteria	Model Fit Value
CMIN	—	502.223
DF	—	238
CMIN/DF	<3	2.110
RMR	<0.08	0.018
GFI	>0.9	0.956
AGFI	>0.9	0.944
NFI	>0.9	0.965
IFI	>0.9	0.981
TLI	>0.9	0.988
CFI	>0.9	0.981
RMSEA	<0.08	0.033

, all the fit indicators of the model met the recommended criteria, indicating that the model fit the data well.

The standardized factor loadings (Std. Estimate) of all observed variables were greater than 0.6 (p < 0.001), indicating that each question item was significantly correlated with the corresponding latent variable. In addition, the combined reliability (CR) was higher than 0.7 and the average variance extracted (AVE) was greater than 0.5, indicating good internal consistency and convergent validity of the latent variables (see

Table 7. Convergent validity of the validation factor model.

Research Variables	Measure Variables	Std. Estimate	CR	AVE
BA	BA1	0.847	0.898	0.639
	BA2	0.85
	BA3	0.761
CN	CN1	0.828	0.893	0.628
	CN2	0.817
	CN3	0.801
NI	NI1	0.781	0.764	0.521
	NI2	0.829
	NI3	0.812
NV	NV3	0.749	0.791	0.557
	NV1	0.844
	NV2	0.835
NX	NX1	0.777	0.769	0.527
	NX2	0.788
	NX3	0.796
PA	PA4	0.798	0.935	0.742
	PA1	0.796
	PA2	0.808
	PA3	0.742
	PA5	0.8

).

As shown in

Table 8. Distinguishing validity.

Latitude	NV	NI	NX	BA	CN	PA
NV	0.747
NI	0.32 ***	0.722
NX	0.194 ***	0.218 ***	0.726
BA	0.44 ***	0.479 ***	0.497 ***	0.799
CN	0.444 ***	0.429 ***	0.408 ***	0.406 ***	0.792
PA	0.523 ***	0.537 ***	0.542 ***	0.651 ***	0.644 ***	0.863

Note: *** p < 0.001.

, the AVE square root values of each latent variable (the bolded part of the diagonal line) are greater than the correlation coefficients of the variable with the other variables (the lower triangular part), which indicates a good discriminant validity among the dimensions.

4.4. Common Method Bias Test

In order to control the effect of common method bias, the Harman one-factor test was used in this study. The results of exploratory factor analysis showed that a total of five factors had eigenvalues greater than 1, with the first factor explaining 15.337% of the variance, which did not reach the critical criterion of 40%. For further validation, a method factor was added to the full factorial model for validation factor analysis, and the results showed that the model fit indicators were good: the CMIN/DF value was 2.110 (less than 3), the TLI and CFI were 0.988 and 0.981 (both greater than 0.9), and the RMSEA and SRMR were 0.033 and 0.018 (both less than 0.08), respectively. It shows that the model fit is good and there is no significant common method bias problem, indicating that the measurements in this study are less affected by common method bias.

4.5. Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis of the Variables

Table 9. Means, standard deviations, and Pearson’s correlation statistics for each variable.

Variable	Average Value	Standard Deviation	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. NV	3.369	0.762	1
2. NI	3.415	0.769	0.253 ***	1
3. NX	3.3	0.813	0.147 ***	0.164 ***	1
4. BA	3.247	0.818	0.380 ***	0.400 ***	0.416 ***	1
5. CN	3.326	0.739	0.384 ***	0.356 ***	0.341 ***	0.336 ***	1
6. PA	3.79	0.746	0.460 ***	0.458 ***	0.462 ***	0.592 ***	0.584 ***	1

Note: *** p < 0.001.

presents the mean, standard deviation, and Pearson’s correlation statistics for each variable. For the mean values, PA had the highest mean value of 3.79 and BA had the lowest mean value of 3.247, which is a moderate level for each variable in general. The standard deviation was between 0.739 and 0.818, and the data were moderately dispersed. In terms of correlation, NV is significantly and positively correlated with NI (0.253 ***) and NX (0.147 ***); NI is significantly and positively correlated with NX (0.164 ***); BA is significantly and positively correlated with NV (0.380 ***), NI (0.400 ***), and NX (0.416 ***); and CN is significantly and positively correlated with NV (0.384 ***), NI (0.356 ***), NX (0.341 ***), and BA (0.336 ***); PA was significantly and positively correlated with NV (0.460 ***), NI (0.458 ***), NX (0.462 ***), BA (0.592 ***), and CN (0.584 ***), with the highest correlation coefficient between PA and BA, indicating the relatively strongest association.

4.6. Parallel Mediation Effects Test

A latent variable direct effect model with NV, NI, and NX as independent variables, PA as a dependent variable, and no mediator variables (PSR, PHR) was developed using AMOS 26.0, and the model fit was good with χ²/df = 2.070, RMESA = 0.032, CFI = 0.990, TLI = 0.989, and SRMR = 0.011. The direct effect model showed that NV had a significant positive predictive effect on PA (β = 0.337, SE = 0.033), NI on PA (β = 0.371, SE = 0.036), and NX on PA (β = 0.406, SE = 0.028) (p < 0.001).

Parallel mediation effects test: BA and CN were used as mediating variables to establish the full model of parallel mediation structural equation (as shown in Figure 2), and the bias-corrected non-parametric percentile Bootstrap method was used to repeat the sampling 5000 times and calculate the 95% confidence intervals to test the differences between specific mediation effect, total mediation effect, total effect and specific mediation effect.

Model fit data showed that χ²/df = 2.110, RMESA = 0.033, CFI = 0.981, TLI = 0.978, and SRMR = 0.019, and the model indicators were up to standard. The amount of change in comparison with the direct effect model was Δχ² = 355.237, Δdf = 167, p < 0.001, indicating that the mediator model fit was significantly better than the direct effect model, and the inclusion of the mediator variables was reasonable.

According to

Table 10. Path analysis.

			95% CI
Parameter	Std. Estimate	Intermediary Percentage	Lower	Upper Limit
NV→PA
Ind1→NV→BA→PA	0.07	20.59%	0.051	0.088
Ind2→NV→CN→PA	0.089	26.18%	0.066	0.112
Total indirect effect T1	0.159	46.76%	0.125	0.185
Direct effect NV→PA	0.181		0.133	0.236
Total effect S1	0.34		0.292	0.398
Median difference diff1	0.02		0.043	0.058
NI→PA
Ind1→NI→BA→PA	0.086	23.37%	0.068	0.126
Ind2→NI→CN→PA	0.085	23.10%	0.066	0.108
Total indirect effect T2	0.17	46.20%	0.136	0.214
Direct effect NI→PA	0.198		0.14	0.247
Total effect S2	0.368		0.317	0.429
Median difference diff2	0.001		−0.025	0.031
NX→PA
Ind1→NX→BA→PA	0.096	24.00%	0.074	0.123
Ind2→NX→CN→PA	0.084	21.00% 0.06	0.06	0.108
Total indirect effect T3	0.181	45.25%	0.138	0.213
Direct effect NX→PA	0.22		0.16	0.285
Total effect S3	0.4		0.345	0.455
Median difference diff3	0.012		−0.014	0.058

, it can be seen that the specific mediating effects Ind1→NV→BA→PA (ES = 20.59%), Ind2→NV→CN→PA (ES = 26.18%), Ind1→NI→BA→PA (ES = 23.37%), Ind2→NI→CN→PA (ES = 23.10%), Ind1→NX→BA→PA (ES= 24.00%) and Ind2→NX→CN→PA (ES = 21.00%) corresponded to 95% CIs that did not contain 0 (see table for specific intervals), indicating that all six specific mediating effects were significant (p < 0.001). The confidence intervals for the total indirect effects T1 (0.159), T2 (0.17), and T3 (0.181) did not contain 0, indicating that the mediation pathway was significant as a whole; the confidence intervals for NV→PA, NI→PA, and NX→PA in the direct effects did not contain 0, but the intervals for the mediation differences diff2 and diff3 contained 0, indicating that full mediation may exist in some dimensions. Comparative analyses showed that the confidence intervals for diff1 ([−0.043,0.058]), diff2 ([−0.025,0.031]), and diff3 ([−0.014,0.058]) contained 0, indicating that there was no significant difference between the parallel mediated effects of Ind1 and Ind2 in the dimensions, which supported the hypothesis. The total effects S1 (0.34), S2 (0.368) and S3 (0.4) were all significant (CIs did not contain 0), further validating the model.

5. Discussion

5.1. Theoretical Contribution and Mechanism Deepening

This study systematically investigates the influence mechanism of natural design features on place attachment in waterfront sports venues, achieving significant theoretical breakthroughs in the field of environmental psychology. The findings reveal that natural visibility, integration, and interactivity affect place attachment through dual psychological pathways: both via cognitive evaluation (nature connectedness) and affective response (biological affinity). This discovery provides empirical support for the application of dual-process theory in built environment research.

The results advance theoretical understanding in two key aspects: First, they confirm the parallel operation of cognitive and affective systems in human-environment interaction, aligning with the core tenets of dual-process theory. In the specific context of sports architecture, users engage in both conscious cognitive appraisal (e.g., rational judgments of design quality) and instinctive emotional reactions (e.g., immediate pleasure from dynamic water features), with both pathways collectively shaping place attachment. Second, the study extends the temporal dimension of dual-process theory. The high-frequency use of sports venues allows cognitive bonds to strengthen through repeated exposure, while affective responses remain relatively stable and immediate. This temporal dynamic offers empirical evidence from an architectural perspective on how cognitive and affective pathways differ in their temporal characteristics.

Furthermore, the study establishes behavioral interactivity as an independent dimension of natural experience, moving beyond traditional dual-process research that predominantly focuses on perceptual input. This theoretical innovation suggests that active physical engagement may serve as a critical link between dual-process systems by simultaneously enhancing cognitive evaluation and affective experience. These advancements refine the cognitive framework of environmental psychology in architecture and highlight the need for future research to adopt a more integrative theoretical perspective, examining the interplay between cognitive and affective systems across different built environments.

5.2. Dialogue and Expansion with Existing Studies

The results of this study form a revealing dialog with the existing literature. Existing studies support the core hypothesis of this paper in several ways, i.e., that environmental features such as natural visibility, integration, and interaction positively influence place attachment in waterfront sports buildings. A study on Japanese outdoor sports participants found that leisure activities through natural environments significantly enhanced people’s place attachment and thus triggered positive environmental behaviors, which is highly consistent with this paper’s hypothesis that natural interactivity enhances place attachment [48]. Uesugi and Kudo’s study constructed a structural equation model to confirm that natural capital indirectly predicts tourists’ behaviors through place attachment and tourism image intention, emphasizing the role of natural visibility and integration in shaping attachment [80]. In addition, Chen and Ma’s study pointed out that the quality of the natural environment (e.g., greening of the waterfront, openness of the view) and recreational facilities together determine the vitality of the waterfront space, which is consistent with the positive effects of natural integration and interaction emphasized in this paper [81]. As for the mediating mechanism, many studies have also found the role of natural connectivity in the relationship between the natural environment and the human-land relationship, which verifies the rationality of natural connectivity as a mediator variable rationality [82].

Although the results of a large number of studies are consistent with this paper, there are some differences. For example, in Uesugi and Kudo’s study, it was pointed out that “place identity” was not significant in predicting environmental behaviors, and only “place attachment” had significant predictive power, which is different from the hypothesis of this paper that nature connection plays a significant mediating role in the influence of natural environment on place attachment. Although Qiu and Luo’s (2025) study established the mediating role of “restorative cognition”, the study focused on health behaviors rather than place attachment, and although there are similar mechanisms of emotional bonding between the two, the focuses of the study are different [83]. Xiao et al.’s study used perceived natural connectivity as a dimension of perceived wood design in sports stadiums, and the study found that the perceived natural connectivity of the stadiums was not significant; design perception dimension emphasizes that perceived natural connection can affect spectator satisfaction through the mediating role of biophilia, which is fundamentally different from this paper’s use of natural connection and biophilia as parallel mediating variables [78].

5.3. Practical Implications and Management Insights

The empirical findings of this study offer multidimensional guidance for the planning, design, and operational management of waterfront sports venues. At the architectural design level, the research demonstrates that optimizing natural visibility requires a systematic visual management strategy. Integrating traditional landscape techniques such as fengjing (framed views) and toujing (borrowed scenery) with modern sightline analysis can establish dynamic visual sequences in key functional areas. Particularly for waterside interfaces, careful organization of landscape layers—through controlled visual openness and focal point distribution—can create a multiscale visual experience, ranging from broad aquatic vistas to fine natural details [84].

In terms of spatial organization, the study advocates a “blurred boundary” design philosophy to enhance natural integration [85]. This can be achieved through water-infused transitional spaces, semi-open buffer zones, and material gradation, effectively softening the rigid separation between built and natural environments. Such spatial strategies not only deepen user immersion but also foster distinctive place identity, fundamentally elevating the venue’s spatial quality and recognizability. Regarding interactivity, the findings suggest implementing a differentiated natural engagement system. High-activity fitness zones may incorporate water-based training programs, such as hydrodynamic resistance circuits, while leisure-oriented areas could feature tiered waterfront amenities, including observation decks and ecological floating installations. This targeted programming ensures alignment with diverse user behaviors, optimizing spatial utility.

From a long-term operational perspective, the study recommends incorporating place attachment metrics into venue performance evaluations to systematically track the relationship between user psychological engagement and spatial usage patterns. Furthermore, natural design elements should be leveraged as a core competitive advantage, enhancing market appeal through unique environmental experiences. These measures not only address underutilization challenges common in large public facilities but also advance the evolution of sports architecture toward more human-centric and sustainable models, setting a benchmark for urban public space enhancement.

6. Conclusions

This study constructed a parallel mediation model to reveal the mechanism by which the natural design characteristics of waterfront sports venues influence users’ place attachment. The study found that natural visibility, integration, and interaction all have a significant positive impact on place attachment, and that connectedness to nature and biological affinity play parallel mediating roles in all three paths. This result verifies the applicability of the “perception-emotion” dual-path theory in architectural environmental psychology, indicating that natural design elements indirectly strengthen place attachment through rational evaluation at the cognitive level, and can also directly trigger users’ psychological attachment through instinctive reactions at the emotional level. In this study, the effects of the two mediating paths are similar, indicating that rational cognition and emotional experience are equally important in the formation of place attachment. In addition, this study is the first to incorporate water interactivity into the quantitative framework of natural design characteristics, compensating for the limitations of previous studies that focused on visual contact and neglected behavioral participation, and providing a more comprehensive theoretical basis for the ecological design of waterfront spaces.

7. Shortcomings and Prospects

This study, as an exploratory research, although it has made certain contributions, still has several limitations. First, although the sample covers multiple coastal cities, it does not include inland lakeside or riverside venues, which may limit the generalizability of the conclusions. Future research could compare inland and coastal-type sports venues. Second, the cross-sectional design cannot capture the dynamic formation process of place attachment. In the future, tracking experiments such as cross-lag can be used to reveal the dynamic influence mechanism of the time dimension. Third, the measurement of natural design characteristics based on self-assessment scales does not subdivide specific elements. Follow-up studies can use virtual reality technology to simulate different design scenarios to further analyze the psychological effects of micro-design language. Fourth, on a theoretical level, because the research subjects were limited to China, the regulatory role of cultural differences on biological affinity was not explored. For example, the ‘’mountain and water mood’’ in East Asian culture may reinforce the emotional value of natural elements. Future research can conduct large-scale global surveys to make cross-cultural comparisons. These issues will be addressed in further research in the future.