Soundscapes and Emotional Experiences in World Heritage Temples: Implications for Religious Architectural Design

Abstract

The impact of soundscapes in religious architecture on public psychology has garnered increasing attention in both research and policy domains. However, the mechanisms by which temple soundscapes influence public emotions remain scientifically unclear. This paper aims to explore how soundscapes in temple architectures designated as World Natural and Cultural Heritage sites affect visitors’ experiences. Considering visitors with diverse social and demographic backgrounds, the research design includes subjective soundscape evaluations and EEG measurements from 193 visitors at two World Heritage temples. The results indicate that visitors’ religious beliefs primarily affect their soundscape perception, while their soundscape preferences show specific correlations with chanting and human voices. Furthermore, compared to males, females exhibit greater sensitivity to emotional variations induced by soundscape experiences. Urban architects can enhance visitors’ positive emotional experiences by integrating soundscape design into the planning of future religious architectures, thereby creating pleasant acoustic environments.

1. Introduction

Soundscape and acoustic environments have always been central issues in global architectural literature and practice [1]. Exposure to noise or excessive reverberation negatively impacts public satisfaction with soundscape experiences [2,3], serving as an indicator to measure the consistency between sound conditions and public soundscape preferences [4]. However, existing soundscape studies in religious buildings [5] remain disproportionately scarce compared to other built environments, such as public buildings [6], development spaces [7], residential buildings [8], rural environments [9], historic urban area [10], and historical buildings [11]. Furthermore, the sound fields and environments of religious structures can affect visitors’ emotional states [12]. Research has demonstrated that religious involvement, including religious cognitions can make people feel content calmer, buffer the negative effects of stress, and improve sleep disturbances [13]. Previous studies have examined the soundscapes of various religious buildings, such as churches [14], mosques [15], and historical centers [16], highlighting their unique acoustic qualities. Importantly, the diverse sounds in temples play a key role in creating a religious atmosphere [17]. Additionally, positive experiences of natural sounds help individuals recover from stress-related mental disorders [9,18]. Specifically, quiet soundscapes may benefit people’s overall mental health through their psychological restorative potential [19]. Therefore, to promote the multidimensional benefits of soundscapes, architects must understand the key acoustic attributes that influence the advantages of temple soundscapes.

This study addresses three research questions by applying field measurements of the acoustic environment, neuro-emotional parameter assessments, self-report methods, and statistical analyses to data collected from two religious temples in Sichuan, China, which are World Natural and Cultural Heritage sites:

Question 1 (Q1):

Does the acoustic environment of temples affect visitors’ subjective evaluations?

Question 2 (Q2):

Does the experience of temple soundscapes influence visitors’ emotions?

Question 3 (Q3):

Do demographic characteristics affect the observed patterns?

This study makes a threefold contribution to the literature on soundscape planning for religious buildings and the practice of soundscape creation. First, we examine the impact of the acoustic environment of temple buildings on visitors’ emotions through field surveys and physiological measurements, providing empirical evidence for science-based design and management decisions regarding the acoustic environment of religious structures. Second, we employ self-report methods to examine the relationship between the acoustic environment and visitor perceptions. Identifying key characteristics that influence soundscape experiences and creating acoustic attributes that meet these needs are of great significance for meeting the standards of constructing typical religious soundscapes. This enriches architects’ understanding of potential contributors and aids future research in overcoming the lack of quantitative indicators in soundscape design. Third, based on the relationship between temple soundscapes and emotions, we explore the emotional changes in visitors experiencing the acoustic environment of temples. This study further calls for future research to provide beneficial guidance on the acoustic environment of religious buildings from the perspective of promoting visitors’ positive emotions.

2. Literature Review

2.1. The Health Benefits of Soundscapes

The World Health Organization [20] recognizes that extensive noise exposure can cause serious harm to people, including sleep disturbances [21], ischemic heart disease [22], and stress-related mental disorders. In terms of auditory perception, preferred sounds have been proven to have positive effects on the body and mind [23]. For example, for centuries, music has been used to treat illnesses, restore health, and bring peace of mind. Particularly, natural sounds have been increasingly applied as supportive design interventions in clinical healthcare to improve patient care outcomes [24].

The ISO 12913-1 standard defines the term ‘soundscape’ as ‘an acoustic environment as perceived or experienced and/or understood by a person or people, in context’ [25]. Soundscapes have been shown to offer numerous benefits to humans, such as reducing stress-related illnesses and providing emotional support during recovery from diseases [26,27]. Moreover, soundscapes play a key role in creating comfortable environments and enhancing tourism experiences [28]. Soundscape is an important component of the tourism experience, and different types of sounds can profoundly affect visitors’ perceptions [29]. Although travel may have other purposes, such as enjoying scenery, participating in sports activities, engaging in social events, and seeking to reduce traffic, improve safety, or decrease pollution, these various factors influence the visitor experience, among which soundscape plays a significant role [30]. Therefore, it is necessary to ascertain visitors’ perceptions of soundscapes in religious temples, which will help architects and travel managers create pleasant acoustic environments within built spaces, enhancing visitors’ satisfaction with recreational experiences [20].

Evaluating soundscapes involves factors such as preferences and perceived loudness of the overall soundscape and individual sounds, considerations about potential disturbances caused by sound levels, the restorative nature of the overall soundscape or individual sounds, the appropriateness of sounds in their environment, and the perceived locations of different individual sounds [31,32,33,34]. Additionally, two-dimensional soundscape models (e.g., soundscape pleasantness and soundscape eventfulness) [35] or unidimensional ordinal categorical scales are common methods for exploring contextual perceptions of soundscapes.

Understanding these factors will help us gain a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms by which soundscapes at tourist destinations affect visitors’ emotions. Soundscape design has increasingly been recognized as a critical component in urban planning and landscape architecture, aiming to enhance the quality of public spaces and promote health benefits [1]. To date, few studies have utilized the soundscape characteristics of religious temples to investigate their health benefits. This knowledge gap may limit the application of research findings in the acoustic environment and management practices of religious buildings.

2.2. Soundscape Experiences in Religious Contexts

World Heritage Sites often face significant challenges, including extreme climates [36], heavy tourism pressure, and the impacts of rapid urbanization and global expansion [37]. Many sites on the endangered list have suffered damage to their visual integrity, jeopardizing their cultural and historical value [38]. However, it is important to note that the soundscape of a site, as a component of the overall environment, also plays a critical role in enhancing visitor satisfaction and shaping local residents’ identity [39]. In this context, preserving and developing soundscapes is increasingly seen as vital for maintaining the cultural significance of these sites.

Religious sites, particularly Buddhist temples, have incorporated tourism into their operations to support preservation and cultural exchange. Secularization theory suggests that, with economic development, traditional religious participation has declined as everyday activities replace the social functions of religion [40]. As a result, religious tourism—motivated by both spiritual and cultural interests—has grown in prominence and now constitutes a significant portion of global tourism [41]. Within this phenomenon, the soundscape experiences of religious places have gained more attention in recent years as a key aspect of enhancing the visitor experience.

For instance, a study by Oxford academics featured a soundscape installation at The Vyne, a chapel, which played retro music from 1535, helping visitors immerse themselves in the historical atmosphere of the time [42]. Other studies have explored soundscapes in diverse religious settings, such as Islamic mosques in the Netherlands [5], Han Chinese Buddhist temples [17], and ancient English churches [14]. In Sheffield, several churches have also developed acoustic environments that enhance comfort and spiritual engagement [43]. These examples underscore the importance of soundscapes in enriching the spiritual and cultural experiences at religious sites, contributing to both the preservation of these sites and the enhancement of their visitor appeal.

However, the rapid expansion of tourism introduces a range of human-made sounds, such as crowds, amplified announcements, and vehicle noise, which affect visitors’ experiences and the cultural essence of the auditory environment [44]. These anthropogenic noises can disrupt the intended sacred atmosphere of religious spaces, leading to diminished emotional and spiritual experiences for visitors [45].

The tranquil and solemn environment of Buddhism can purify the mind and relax the body. Chinese Buddhism has long emphasized the pursuit of spiritual realms, using chanting and music to cleanse the soul [46]. However, most studies have examined religious temples through questionnaires and focused on soundscape evaluations [27]. While previous research on soundscape perception has been primarily subjective, there is a growing recognition that physiological measurements, such as Electroencephalogram (EEG), can provide objective insights into emotional responses [47]. Moreover, auditory stimuli can cause physiological indicators to reflect induced emotions, indicating that physiological and emotional responses to soundscape perception are interrelated [48]. Therefore, evaluating soundscapes in religious temples, which are typical representatives of World Heritage sites, and exploring their potential psychological impacts on visitors are being underestimated.

Addressing this gap, our study aims to integrate subjective evaluations with physiological measurements to comprehensively understand the impact of temple soundscapes on visitors’ emotional states. This investigation aims to provide both theoretical insights into cross-modal perception and practical implications for acoustic environment conservation in religious heritage sites. Specifically, we hypothesize that:

Hypothesis 1 (H1):

Temples with prominent religious sound environments will yield significantly higher subjective evaluation scores.

Hypothesis 2 (H2):

Religious soundscapes will elicit characteristic EEG emotional response patterns.

Hypothesis 3 (H3):

Religious attitude serves as a key demographic characteristic of soundscape perception in a Buddhist temple.

3. Methods

3.1. Study Sample

Located in the southwestern part of Sichuan Province, China, Mount Emei was inscribed on the World Natural and Cultural Heritage List in 1996 for its outstanding natural beauty and cultural significance. The Mount Emei Scenic Area covers 154 square kilometers, with its highest peak reaching an altitude of 1099 m. With a rich history of human activity spanning approximately 3000 years, largely attributed to its breathtaking landscapes, Mount Emei is also one of China’s four famous Buddhist mountains. The area hosts about 300 monks and nuns, and nearly 30 temples are scattered throughout the region. This study selected Wannian Temple and Elephant Pool (as shown in Figure 1) as research sites. The diverse characteristics of world heritage architectural quality and distribution provide an attractive case for exploring the relationship between the acoustic environment of religious buildings and public soundscape perception and emotion.

There are three reasons for choosing these two temples: First, both temples have a long history and prestigious reputation. Second, although located on the popular tourist route of Mount Emei, the functional attributes of the two temples differ: Wannian Temple serves tourists more, while Elephant Pool is primarily used for prayer (as classified based on previous pilot studies). Finally, Wannian Temple receives tens of thousands of visitors daily, whereas Elephant Pool has relatively fewer visitors. Therefore, we chose to collect data at these two sites to obtain a broad data range.

3.2. Soundscape Survey

Before conducting the comprehensive study, we performed a small-scale preliminary survey to determine the questionnaire’s content. This survey was conducted by researchers at Wannian Temple and Elephant Pool from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. daily over one week. Observations were excluded during inclement weather, rainy days, or windy conditions. The main observation areas are shown in Figure 1 and were intended to observe and record soundscape components. To avoid subjective bias, the research team rotated between the temples daily. After this preliminary survey, we identified that the main soundscape components of both temples were similar, primarily consisting of Buddhist chanting, human voices, wind sounds, plant sounds, bell sounds, and animal sounds.

Based on the acoustic environments of the two temples identified in the preliminary survey, a questionnaire was designed, comprising three parts: participants’ basic information, soundscape evaluation, and an introduction to EEG measurement and intention collection. The soundscape evaluation section included the types of soundscape elements most noticed by participants, evaluations of each soundscape element, assessment of the overall soundscape environment, as well as repeated question traps and distraction questions. The repeated question traps ensured that participants answered carefully, while the distraction questions aimed to prevent scoring errors due to continuous rating [49]. The questionnaire used a 7-point Likert scale, with scores from 1 to 7 representing participants’ attitudes ranging from very uncomfortable/dislike to very comfortable/like. The survey lasted for three days, from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. each day, randomly inviting tourists to participate.

3.3. Participants

To protect participants’ privacy, any personal information collected in the questionnaire (names, basic health status) was not disclosed. Additionally, each participant provided written informed consent. The experiment was approved by the Ethics Committee of Southwest University of Science and Technology (Approve No. L2024031). The exclusion criteria were implemented through: (1) pre-participation screening via questionnaire items assessing self-reported health status and hearing ability, and (2) post-questionnaire exclusion of participants who declined EEG measurement.

Participants’ characteristics included age, gender, and attitude toward Buddhism. Attitudes toward Buddhism were divided into three categories: believers (believe in Buddhism), neutral (do not believe in Buddhism but believe in other religions), and non-believers (do not believe in Buddhism or any religion). The survey was conducted anonymously and introduced as a study on temple soundscapes. Participants who self-reported good health and normal hearing were invited to participate in the next step, which involved measuring neuro-emotional parameters using wireless devices. The method of measuring neuro-emotional parameters was explained, and participants’ consent was obtained. Those who declined this measurement were excluded from the statistical analysis. Participants who completed the entire survey received 30 RMB (equivalent to USD 4.12) as compensation for their time.

3.4. Sound Pressure Level Measurement

During the questionnaire survey, experimenters conducted sound walks to measure the sound pressure levels (SPL) of the six main soundscape components each day. We measured the SPLs of these sounds at different locations and times according to ISO standards. Since the surrounding acoustic environment contained multiple soundscape components, it was challenging to accurately measure the SPL of each component on-site. Therefore, we recorded the SPL of a specific soundscape component when it was perceived as dominant by the human ear. The measurement data were manually recorded using an AZ 8928 sound level meter (AZ Instrument Corp, Taiwan, China). Briefly, SPL measurements were conducted at five fixed time slots daily (9:00, 11:00, 13:00, 15:00, 17:00). At each session, we recorded 8 consecutive measurements per soundscape component (1 min intervals) using the calibrated sound level meter; place the microphone at a height of 1.2 m above the ground; calculated equivalent continuous sound levels (Leq) from the 8 measurements to minimize transient noise interference. At each site, all measurements were performed by same researchers to ensure consistency.

3.5. Electroencephalogram

Emotions are considered mechanisms arising from bodily reactions and neurobiochemical changes [50]. Neurological tools can measure brainwaves during emotional expression to understand the intensity of emotional responses [51]. Therefore, we used the Emotiv EPOC+ EEG recorder from Emotiv Systems, San Francisco, CA, USA, to record participants’ EEG activity across 14 channels covering the four brain lobes. The Emotiv EPOC+ EEG recorder is a head-mounted device that covers the frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes through 14 electrode points on the head, as shown in Figure 2. Before data collection, all felt pads on the sensors were thoroughly moistened with a 5% saline solution, as required by the EEG recorder, to ensure proper scalp conductivity, and correctly placed on participants’ heads. Participants remained fully rested and maintained calm emotions during this process.

EEG recordings were conducted at fixed locations in front of the main halls of the two temples under study, where seats were arranged as designated testing points. Participants were invited to sit at these locations after completing the first part of their visit. The EEG headset was fitted mid-visit, and participants were given approximately 2 min to adapt to the device. During this time, they remained seated and were informed of the procedures. After the adaptation period, a 5 min EEG acquisition was carried out while participants remained seated, quiet, and without interacting with mobile phones or any external devices. They were instructed to stay still, relax, and focus on perceiving the surrounding environment during the recording, under the supervision and guidance of the research staff. All participants completed only one EEG session during this study, and each session lasted exactly 5 min.

After fitting the device, we collected outputs related to six emotions—engagement, excitement, stress, relaxation, interest, and focus—from the four brain lobes [52,53]. The signals measured by the EPOC+ were recorded using Emotiv PRO software (Version: 4.6 for Windows), which can monitor and store sensor data in real time. These parameters objectively reflect participants’ emotional responses to different environmental stimuli [51].

To ensure the quality of EEG signals, a standardized preprocessing pipeline was applied. Raw EEG data were first band-pass filtered between 0.5 and 40 Hz using a zero-phase Butterworth filter to remove low-frequency drifts and high-frequency noise. Signals were then visually inspected for artifacts such as eye blinks or muscle movements, and contaminated segments were manually removed. Each channel’s signal was re-referenced to the average of all channels to reduce spatial bias [54].

For each environmental condition, participants’ emotional responses were recorded continuously for 5 min. To reduce short-term fluctuations, the average values of each emotional parameter were calculated over the full duration of the exposure. In order to control for inter-individual variability in baseline EEG levels, emotional indices were z-score normalized within each participant before group-level analysis. Statistical comparisons across environmental conditions were conducted using repeated-measures ANOVA with Greenhouse–Geisser correction when sphericity was violated. Post hoc pairwise comparisons were adjusted using Bonferroni correction.

3.6. Data Analysis

Differences in the most noticeable soundscape elements between the two temples, as well as differences in participants’ evaluations of the overall soundscape environment, were analyzed using t-tests. Other data were analyzed using two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s post hoc tests. Pearson correlation analyses were also conducted among the data. Statistical calculations and graphing were performed using SPSS 27 and GraphPad Prism 9.0 for Windows.

4. Results

4.1. Descriptive Statistics

This study analyzed data from 193 participants who completed both the questionnaire and EEG measurements (98 at Wannian Temple and 95 at Elephant Pool). Their demographic characteristics are presented in

Table 1. Participant Demographic Characteristics.

Characteristics	Classify and Distribution	Wannian Temple (n = 98)	Elephant Pool (n = 95)
Age	<18	17%	16%
	18–29	19%	19%
	30–45	40%	39%
	46–60	22%	25%
	>60	1%	1%
Gender	Male	51%	48%
	Female	49%	52%
Religious beliefs	Believe	32%	36%
	Neutrality	38%	33%
	Non-believe	31%	32%

, which presents the background information of the participants, and the characteristic distributions of the two groups are similar.

4.2. Acoustic Environment of Religious Temples

Figure 3 displays the differences in sound pressure levels among the six soundscape components within the temples (Figure 3a,b), the comparison of sound pressure levels of soundscape elements between the two temples (Figure 3c), and the differences in the most noticeable soundscape elements to visitors between the two temples (Figure 3d). In both Wannian Temple and Elephant Pool, the sound pressure levels of human voices are significantly higher than those of other soundscape elements within the temples (p < 0.01). There are no significant differences in sound pressure levels among the other soundscape elements. Additionally, there are no significant differences in the sound pressure levels of the same types of sounds between the two temples. However, the proportion of visitors reporting human voices as one of the most noticeable soundscape elements at Wannian Temple is significantly higher than that at Elephant Pool (p < 0.01).

4.3. Visitor Soundscape Perception Evaluations

Figure 4a presents the perceived overall soundscape ratings by all visitors, showing that the overall soundscape score of Wannian Temple is significantly lower than that of Elephant Pool (p < 0.01). Figure 4b displays the perceived overall soundscape ratings by male and female participants. There is no significant difference between male and female participants’ evaluations within the same temple, but both groups rated the overall soundscape of Elephant Pool higher than that of Wannian Temple. Figure 4c illustrates the soundscape perception scores of visitors with different religious beliefs. Regardless of their belief in Buddhism, visitors at Wannian Temple showed no significant differences in their overall soundscape evaluations. However, at Elephant Pool, visitors who believe in Buddhism rated the overall soundscape significantly higher than those who are non-believers or neutral (p < 0.01). Moreover, the subjective evaluation scores of Buddhist believers at Elephant Pool are higher than those at Wannian Temple (p < 0.01). Figure 4d shows the overall soundscape perception scores of visitors of different ages. Since there was only one visitor over 60 years old participating at each temple, this age group was not included in the statistics. Except for visitors aged 46 to 60, who rated the overall soundscape of Elephant Pool significantly higher than those aged 18 to 29, there were no significant differences in overall soundscape perception scores among other age groups within and between the temples.

In Elephant Pool, visitors with different attitudes toward Buddhism exhibited significant differences in their soundscape perceptions. Overall, all visitors rated the overall soundscape of Wannian Temple significantly lower than that of Elephant Pool. When aggregating the overall soundscape ratings of different demographic groups for the two temples, it is evident that both male and female visitors rated Wannian Temple lower than Elephant Pool; only visitors with different religious beliefs showed both intra-group and inter-group differences in their overall soundscape ratings.

4.4. Soundscape Preferences in Religious Temples

Figure 5 presents the correlation coefficients between Buddhist visitors’ ratings of six sound types and their overall soundscape evaluations, the upper-right quadrant presents the correlation analysis results for Wannian Temple, while the lower-left quadrant shows those for Elephant Pool. Their subjective evaluations of the overall soundscape showed strong correlations with both chanting sounds and human voices at Wannian Temple and Elephant Pool (all correlation coefficients r > 0.5). Notably, at Elephant Pool, Buddhist visitors’ soundscape evaluations demonstrated an exceptionally strong correlation with chanting sounds (r = 0.85), whereas at Wannian Temple, this relationship was moderate (r = 0.57). For all participants as well as neutral/non-Buddhist visitors, subjective evaluations of the overall soundscape at both temples demonstrated only moderate to weak correlations with individual sound components (chanting, human voices, wind, vegetation, bells, and animal sounds; see Supplementary Figures S1–S3).

4.5. Relationship Between Soundscape Perception and Emotion

Figure 6 depicts the EEG activities of visitors with different attitudes toward Buddhism. At Wannian Temple, there is minimal difference in EEG responses among visitors with varying Buddhist beliefs; only the emotional parameter stress was significantly lower for non-Buddhist visitors compared to neutral visitors (p < 0.05), and their relaxation index was significantly higher than that of Buddhist believers at Wannian Temple (p < 0.01). Conversely, at Elephant Pool, there are larger differences in EEG responses among visitors with different Buddhist beliefs. Buddhist believers have significantly lower indices of engagement, excitement, and stress compared to neutral and non-believing visitors (p < 0.01), while their relaxation and interest indices are significantly higher (p < 0.01). Additionally, significant differences exist in the EEG responses of Buddhist believers between the two temples: Buddhist believers exhibit significantly higher engagement, excitement, and stress indices at Wannian Temple (p < 0.01), whereas their relaxation and interest indices are significantly higher at Elephant Pool (p < 0.01). For visitors who are neutral or do not believe in Buddhism, there are no significant differences in EEG responses between the two temples.

4.6. Relationship Between Soundscape Preferences and Emotions

Figure 7 illustrates the correlations between overall soundscape ratings and emotional parameter scores for all participants at both temples (upper-right quadrant: Wannian Temple; lower-left quadrant: Elephant Pool). At Elephant Pool, participants’ soundscape evaluations showed: Moderate negative correlations with engagement (r = −0.4), excitement (r = −0.47), and stress (r = −0.5), moderate positive correlation with relaxation (r = 0.55), and weak positive correlation with interest (r = 0.35). In contrast, Wannian Temple demonstrated no significant or weak correlations (all |r| < 0.4) between emotional parameters and soundscape evaluations, highlighting perceptual differences between the two sacred sites. Supplementary Figures S4–S6 present parallel analyses for Buddhist, neutral, and non-Buddhist subgroups, all showing non-significant or weak relationships (|r| < 0.3) between the six emotional parameters and soundscape assessments at both locations.

4.7. Impact of Demographic Characteristics on Emotions

Figure 8 presents the EEG activities of visitors of different genders at the two temples. Within the same temple, there were no significant differences in the six emotional parameters of EEG activities between male and female visitors. However, for female visitors, the indices of excitement, stress, and focus at Elephant Pool Temple were significantly lower than those at Wannian Temple. For male visitors, the indices of stress and focus at Elephant Pool Temple were significantly lower than those at Wannian Temple, and the relaxation index was significantly higher. This suggests that, compared to males, females are more susceptible to emotional differences influenced by the soundscape environment.

Figure 9 shows the EEG activities of visitors of different ages at the two temples. At Wannian Temple, there were no significant differences among age groups. At Elephant Pool, visitors aged 46 to 60 had significantly lower excitement and stress indices than those aged 18 to 29, and their relaxation indices were significantly higher. Between the two temples, visitors aged 30 to 45 at Elephant Pool had significantly lower stress indices than at Wannian Temple; visitors aged 46 to 60 at Elephant Pool had significantly higher relaxation indices than at Wannian Temple; and the focus indices of visitors aged 18 to 29, 30 to 45, and 46 to 60 at Elephant Pool were all significantly lower than those at Wannian Temple.

5. Discussion

This study found that the characteristics of visitors who participated in the complete experiments at both temples showed no significant differences. The similarity in demographic characteristics among participants ensures the reliability of our research results. Quantitative measurements showed similar SPL distribution patterns between temples, with human voices being significantly louder (Wannian: 60.8 ± 7.8 dB (A); Elephant Pool: 57.1 ± 7.8 dB (A), p < 0.01) than other components. Our findings indicate that the soundscape components of the two temples are similar, except that the main soundscape components at Wannian Temple are human voices and chanting, while at Elephant Pool, chanting is the primary component. Additionally, there were no significant differences in the sound pressure levels of each sound between the two temples. However, visitors’ perceived overall soundscape ratings for Wannian Temple were significantly lower than those for Elephant Pool. We propose that this is mainly due to the excessive human voices at Wannian Temple. Human voices can be complex and may have positive or negative impacts on the soundscape [55]. Previous studies have reported that in urban open spaces dominated by human voices, people experience the lowest levels of pleasure [56]. Soundscape as an acoustic environment perceived by humans, emphasizing human perception, experience, and context [25]. The perceived quality of a soundscape is mainly determined by the subjective evaluation of the dominant sounds in the acoustic environment, regardless of the complexity of the sound sources [55]. Some previous literature has reported relationships between soundscape and landscape [57]. In this study, chanting and human voices are the main components at Wannian Temple. Chanting aligns with the temple’s ambiance and positively affects the perceived soundscape quality, while human voices negatively influence soundscape perception. In contrast, Elephant Pool features only chanting as the main component, and its positive soundscape perception is undisturbed by other sounds. The lower frequency of human voices and more prominent religious sound environment at Elephant Pool Temple led to better subjective evaluations from visitors, supporting H1.

Individual personality traits may influence the perception of sounds [58]. In this study, there were no significant differences in soundscape evaluation scores among participants of different ages and genders at the two temples. However, visitors with different attitudes toward Buddhism showed significant differences. Previous studies have shown that individuals’ social and demographic factors may affect their evaluations of sounds in urban open spaces [59]. Another study pointed out that respondents’ attitudes toward Buddhist philosophy are significantly correlated with their evaluations of temple soundscapes. Respondents who are more inclined toward Buddhist thought rate the acoustic environment of temples as comfortable [46]. To explore why Buddhist visitors differ from neutral and non-Buddhist visitors in their evaluations of the two temples, we conducted a correlation analysis between overall soundscape evaluations and individual soundscape evaluations. The results showed that for visitors who are neutral or do not believe in Buddhism, the correlation coefficients are relatively close, all being moderately correlated (0.3–0.5) [60]. This indicates that individual soundscapes have relatively balanced impacts on these visitors, possibly because, for them, the temple environment is purely a tourist setting. Each soundscape is a typical component of the overall soundscape, and there is no difference in their perceptions compared to other tourist sites.

For Buddhists, temples are not just ordinary tourist destinations but sacred places where they find spiritual solace. They are more likely to focus on chanting that aligns with the environment and are sensitive to human voices that may disrupt the solemn atmosphere. At Elephant Pool, due to the minimal presence of human voices, Buddhist visitors can enjoy the beautiful soundscape without disturbance, thus achieving spiritual satisfaction. Therefore, Buddhist visitors have a very high subjective evaluation of the overall soundscape at Elephant Pool, with a correlation coefficient of 0.8616 between their subjective evaluation and the chanting soundscape. Buddhist devotees at Elephant Pool showed exceptionally strong correlations between their evaluations of chanting sounds and overall soundscape assessments, confirming H3, though this effect was constrained to acoustically coherent religious environments.

When people perceive the external environment, changes in EEG activity are rapid and less susceptible to interference. Studies have shown that different types of soundscapes can induce changes in EEG activity within one minute, and there is a relatively strong correlation between EEG indicators and subjective evaluation results [61]. Wang et al. [62] proposed that EEG waveforms stabilize within five minutes regardless of the type of stimulus used. Consequently, this study adopted a 5 min EEG recording protocol to reliably capture visitors’ psychophysiological responses to temple soundscapes. Visitors at Elephant Pool exhibited more distinctive EEG patterns, while those at Wannian Temple did not, providing partial support for H2, a phenomenon we attribute to stronger interference factors at the latter site, as discussed below. By recording their EEG activities, this study revealed, from another perspective, the different psychological feelings of visitors with varying attitudes toward Buddhism after listening to the soundscape for five minutes. According to the EEG data obtained, visitors with different attitudes toward Buddhism showed little difference at Wannian Temple, with significant differences only in “stress” and “relaxation”. However, at Elephant Pool, visitors exhibited significant differences in most emotional parameters. Compared with neutral and non-Buddhist visitors, Buddhist visitors had significantly lower indices of “engagement,” “excitement,” and “stress,” and significantly higher indices of “relaxation” and “interest.”

These findings align with international research indicating that religious or culturally significant soundscapes can have profound effects on individuals who identify with those cultures or religions. For instance, studies by Smith et al. [50] demonstrated that participants exposed to familiar religious chants exhibited increased relaxation and decreased stress levels compared to non-familiar listeners. Similarly, sacred music in religious spaces enhances spiritual experiences for believers, while non-believers may not experience the same depth of emotional response [63].

Human voices are generally considered unpleasant by most people and may trigger negative emotions [64]. In this study, the soundscapes of the two temples are similar except that Wannian Temple has more human voices. We speculate that the significant difference in visitors’ experiences is mainly due to the excessive human voices at Wannian Temple affecting the overall soundscape. Temples like Elephant Pool, with fewer human voices, provide Buddhist visitors with a better soundscape experience and hold unique significance for them. This study extends the existing literature by highlighting how the congruence between a religious site’s soundscape and the visitors’ spiritual beliefs can enhance emotional well-being. This underscores the importance of preserving authentic acoustic environments in religious heritage sites to maintain their cultural and spiritual value.

Furthermore, the influence of demographic characteristics such as age and gender on emotional responses suggests that personalized soundscape designs could be beneficial. Zhang et al. [17] reported that females and older adults often have heightened sensitivity to acoustic environments, which can be leveraged to enhance their experience in sacred spaces. We should pay attention to visitors with religious beliefs and how the acoustic environment affects the religious tourism atmosphere, enabling these visitors to achieve better spiritual satisfaction. This is an issue that needs consideration in spatial environment management. Despite focusing on auditory perceptions, other factors such as visual aesthetics, crowd density, and social interactions might also influence emotional states [30]. Future studies should control for these variables to more accurately assess the independent impact of soundscapes. For example, by incorporating soundscapes into 3D scenes, sensory factors other than sound can be precisely controlled [65].

This study has some limitations. First, as a field study conducted in natural temple environments, we could not control key variables, such as visitor density fluctuations or microclimate changes. We mainly investigated the relationship between the soundscape of religious buildings and visitors’ physiological emotions. However, changes in physiological emotions are easily influenced by the surrounding environment, which is related to the architectural style and visual environment of religious buildings. Second, while focusing on auditory stimuli, our design did not monitor concurrent visual stimuli or olfactory inputs, potentially overlooking cross-modal interactions in emotional responses. Furthermore, regarding the influence of religious belief, potential confounding factors, such as prior familiarity with the temples and individual sensitivity to religious sounds, were not systematically controlled. Finally, the single-season, short-duration observations (3 days per site) limit our ability to capture diurnal/seasonal variations, and the participant attrition (193/781) may introduce unmeasured confounding variables. This study initially recruited 781 visitors (407 at Wannian Temple and 374 at Elephant Pool) for the surveys, but only approximately one-quarter (193/781) completed both the questionnaire and EEG measurements. This attrition was primarily attributable to: (1) time constraints (EEG measurements required an additional 15 min of participation), and (2) device acceptability issues (participant reluctance to use wearable EEG devices or concerns about hygiene, despite post-session disinfection and replacement of all sensor sponges for each participant).

Therefore, similar methods should be used to further study the relationship between the visual environment of temples and EEG responses. Additionally, incorporating qualitative methods, such as in-depth interviews, could provide richer insights. In future research, it may be necessary to include more soundscape evaluation indicators, such as soundscape pleasantness and eventfulness, and explore multi-sensory experiences by considering other sensory inputs. More comprehensive physiological measures, including autonomic indicators like skin temperature (ST), electrodermal activity (EDA), and heart rate variability (HRV) derived from electrocardiogram (ECG), along with high-precision medical-grade EEG systems, should be incorporated. Despite these limitations, our study makes a significant contribution to the field by integrating physiological measurements with subjective evaluations to explore the emotional effects of temple soundscapes on visitors with different cultural backgrounds. This interdisciplinary approach bridges the gap between environmental psychology, acoustics, and cultural studies, offering new perspectives for future research and practical applications in soundscape design and heritage conservation. For heritage conservation practices, this implies enhancing the authenticity of ritual soundscapes for faith-based groups while striking a balance between religious ambience and acoustic comfort for general visitors.

6. Conclusions

This study investigated the relationship between visitors’ soundscape perceptions and their electroencephalogram (EEG) responses, specifically six emotional parameters across four brain lobes, in the context of religious temples that are part of China’s World Natural and Cultural Heritage sites. Through questionnaires and EEG recordings, we measured acoustic environmental variables and subjective soundscape evaluations from participants. We drew the following conclusions:

(1)

Visitors who believe in Buddhism rated the overall soundscape significantly higher than those who are neutral or do not believe in Buddhism. Specifically, their perception of the temple’s acoustic environment showed a strong correlation with chanting and human voices, and a weaker correlation with natural sounds like wind and birdsong.

(2)

For Buddhist believers, the emotional parameters of “engagement,” “excitement,” and “stress” were significantly lower than those of neutral and non-believing visitors (p < 0.01), while “relaxation” and “interest” were significantly higher (p < 0.01).

(3)

Significant differences exist in the acoustic environment within the same location, whereas similar acoustic characteristics exhibit consistency across different locations.

(4)

Visitors’ age and gender also impact emotional responses during the temple soundscape experience; females are more susceptible to emotional influences from the soundscape.

By combining subjective evaluations with physiological measurements, this study provides empirical evidence on how temple soundscapes affect visitors with different backgrounds. The findings highlight the importance of preserving authentic acoustic environments in religious heritage sites to enhance visitors’ emotional well-being. Our research confirmed Hypotheses H1 and H3 and provided partial support for H2, reinforcing the link between religious belief, soundscape perception, and emotional–physiological responses.