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Review

Research Development and Key Issues of Pervious Concrete: A Review

by
Bo Cui
1,
Aizhong Luo
1,*,
Xiaohu Zhang
1 and
Ping Huang
2
1
School of Civil Engineering, Guizhou University of Engineering Science, Bijie 551700, China
2
College of Environment & Safety Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2024, 14(11), 3419; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14113419
Submission received: 26 September 2024 / Revised: 16 October 2024 / Accepted: 24 October 2024 / Published: 27 October 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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Abstract

In recent years, various aspects of research related to pervious concrete (PC) have progressed rapidly, and it is necessary to summarise and generalise the latest research results. This paper reviews and compares the raw materials of pervious concrete, examining elements such as porosity, permeability, mechanical properties, and durability. According to comparisons, we put forward an ideal aggregate model with Uneven Surface, which may reinforce the mechanical properties. By summarising the important issues of aggregate, particle size, water–cement ratio, additives and admixtures, mixing ratio design, mixing and moulding, and other factors that affect porosity, new design methods are proposed. A new effective stress model of pervious concrete based on continuous porosity and Terzaghi effective stress is developed which may fit the effective stress principle better. Finally, by summarising the research frontiers of pervious concrete, key issues that need to be addressed in future scientific research on pervious concrete are raised.

1. Introduction

Pervious concrete (PC) has gained popularity as an environmentally friendly solution for mitigating the urban heat island effect and promoting sustainable construction. Compared with traditional ordinary concrete, PC can solve the problem of urban flooding, effectively replenish groundwater resources, and improve water quality by absorbing sound and noise and adsorbing pollutants, providing a new way to improve the urban ecological environment [1,2,3,4]. In addition, studies have shown that the use of PC as a permeable breakwater can also provide eco-friendly protection for the coastline [5]. Because of these ecological effects, it is known as a “green” building material. PC, also known as porous concrete or eco-concrete, is a kind of concrete material with a certain porosity and water permeability which is more environmentally friendly and energy-saving than traditional concrete and is of great significance for improving the urban ecological environment [6,7]. It is an eco-concrete material in which no fine aggregate is added during the mixing process and where cement paste is used to bond between each coarse aggregate to form a unique honeycomb porous structure, thus possessing good water permeability [8,9,10]. The ideal PC model and actual results are represented Figure 1.
PC originated in the middle of the 19th century, and, after more than a century of development, the research and production applications of PC have been further deepened and improved. The application scenario of PC is very wide, but in terms of specific applications, such as greening and runway use of PC, highway and retaining wall use of PC, planting and water storage use of PC, and adsorption and noise reduction use of PC, a variety of different uses of PC that present the characteristics of the aggregates, cementitious materials, admixtures, mixing ratio design, preparation process and moulding are different.

2. Raw Materials for PC

2.1. Aggregate

Aggregate, as the raw material supporting the spatial skeleton structure of permeable materials, has an important influence on material strength, permeability, and durability in terms of its shape, particle size range, type, and quality [11]. Using pebbles and artificial gravel as aggregates, the requirements of uniform fineness, clean surface, low impurities, less than 1% mud content, less than 1% organic matter content, and total content of needle and flake particles no-higher than 15% are also applicable to the requirements for PC aggregates [12]. However, in order to give the PC good water permeability, we usually use a single particle size or intermittent graded coarse aggregate preparation of PC, and do not use or a small amount of use of fine aggregates. Natural aggregates are mainly based on natural rocks such as stones and pebbles, and their robustness is generally tested using the sodium sulphate solution method. Compared with natural aggregates, recycled aggregates contain more cracks inside; therefore, recycled aggregates have the problems of high water absorption, low density, and a high crushing index [13,14]. Research has shown that, compared to natural aggregates, using recycled concrete aggregates and recycled bricks as raw materials results in significant strength loss in PC [15,16]. The compressive strength of PC was reduced by over 50%, while the replacement ratio of RCA (recycled concrete aggregate) was 100%, which was mainly caused by the residual mortar adhered on RCA [17,18]. Table 1 shows the specification of natural coarse and recycled concrete aggregates.
However, the experimental study on using recycled aggregates instead of natural aggregates to prepare macroporous permeable concrete with a porosity greater than 30% showed that it would not affect its mechanical properties [20]. The effects of coarse aggregate surface roughness on the mechanical properties of concrete have been widely studied. Increasing the roughness of the coarse aggregate surface led to an increase in the tensile and compressive strengths [21,22,23] (Figure 2).
Zhao Hongkai et al. [24] analysed the effects of solid-waste-recycled aggregate’s morphology and structure, substitution rate, and modification on the properties of PC in terms of macro- and micro-morphology. Wu Changliang et al. [25] used gangue as an aggregate and made progress in the development of functional PC by synergising multiple solid wastes, which is of great significance in promoting the large-scale elimination of gangue resources and in improving the ecological environment and the efficiency of resource use. Table 2 shows the processing process of recycled aggregates.

2.2. Gradation and Grain Size

Xu Xiuhua et al. [26] investigated the use of mine-excavated waste rock for the preparation of PC aggregates and concluded that the workability, compressive and flexural resistance, as well as the frost and abrasion resistance of PC, with a continuous gradation of between 5 and 10 mm, were generally better. Wu Shaoqi et al. [27] analysed the relationship between the single-grain gradation and double-grain gradation (4.75–9.5 mm and 9.5–16 mm) of iron tailings aggregate and compressive resistance based on the nature of iron tailings aggregate, and the results showed that single-grain iron tailings PC has its optimal range of particle sizes; additionally, compared with limestone aggregate, when the particle size of iron tailings aggregate is larger than 9.5 mm, the compressive capacity is stronger, and the best performance of double-granule iron tailings PC is when the ratio of particle size is 3:7. Huang et al. [28] carried out single- and double-grading for two different particle sizes of recycled aggregates, which are 5~10 mm and 10~20 mm, and the results showed that the compressive capacity of single-graded specimens was greater than that of double-graded ones, while the compressive and tensile capacities of double-graded specimens with a particle size ratio of 1:2 were larger. In terms of particle size, since the compressive strength decreases with the increase in the maximum particle size of coarse aggregate, the coarse aggregate with a maximum particle size of less than 20 mm should be used in the preparation of high-strength concrete. Due to the increase in the particle size of recycled aggregate, which reduces the mechanical occlusion between aggregates by decreasing the contact area between aggregates and also leads to the insufficient degree of encapsulation of the cement paste on its surface and the thin thickness of the slurry film, as the average particle size of the aggregate becomes larger, it may lead to a decrease in the load-bearing capacity of the PC, but the water permeability will increase when there is no filling of fine aggregate. However, this does not mean that there is a monotonically decreasing relationship between the aggregate size and the strength of PC, and it has been suggested that, within a certain range, the relationship between the strength of PC and the average size of aggregate shows a monotonically increasing and then a monotonically decreasing trend [29,30]. Chen Pengbo et al. [31] prepared PC with 64% and 36% recycled aggregate without changing the natural coarse aggregate gradation, and the results showed that the slump/expansion of recycled concrete would increase nonlinearly with the increase in recycled coarse aggregate substitution particle size, while the electrical flux and the depth of carbonation would decrease nonlinearly. Miao Runyang et al. [32] investigated the relationship between particle size and fractal dimension, concluding that, the larger the aggregate particle size, the larger the average equivalent pore size within the PC and the larger the fractal dimension of the pores, resulting in the easy formation of large and complex pores within the PC. Wang Xiaoming et al. [33] studied the construction of solid-waste-recycled aggregate used in the production of permeable water-stable grass-roots materials and found that the strength and modulus of single particles of recycled aggregate has a significant size effect. The strength of the natural crushed stone, recycled mortar, and recycled red bricks with the increase in the particle size and reduction in the grading optimisation should help in terms of using natural crushed stone instead of the recycled aggregate in order to improve the overall strength of the aggregate. The overall strength of the aggregate should be improved by replacing the recycled aggregates in this size range as much as possible.

2.3. Water–Cement Ratio

In the year 2022, a design methodology for optimising the composition of cement pastes and particle skeletons was proposed by Claudino et al. [34]. Different water–cement ratios (0.30, 0.35, and 0.40, respectively) as well as different target porosities (5%, 17.5%, and 20%) and different aggregate contents (0%, 10%, and 20%) were carried out in his test. The experimental results show that a water–cement ratio of 0.35 is the best in terms of making the PC mixtures functional enough to improve the mechanical strength of the PC while, at the same time, making the water permeability meet the engineering requirements. While Fan Qianqian et al. [14] concluded that the water–cement ratio of concrete should be maintained at between 0.4 and 0.6 in his experiment, under the condition of constant aggregate and cement content, a lower water–cement ratio will produce a cement paste with a higher concentration and increase the adhesion between the aggregates; however, it will also increase the pore content, which will have a negative impact on the strength, comparatively, the hydration reaction of the cement at a higher water–cement ratio can occur completely.

2.4. Cement Admixtures and Additives

With the addition of admixtures, some of the particles are filled in between the internal gaps of the aggregate, which is conducive to the improvement of concrete compatibility [35]. Yaghmour et al. [36] investigated the feasibility of storing energy in lightweight aggregate and PC incorporated with phase change materials for forced air cooling to offset high ambient temperatures during the day. Bao Jiuwen et al. [37] summarised the research on the performance of recycled coarse aggregate concrete modified by nano-silica, discussed the modification mechanism of nano-silica to improve its performance, and summarised the results of nano-silica in improving the performance of recycled coarse aggregate concrete. Ji Longping [38] found that the incorporation of a moderate amount of metakaolin reduced the water permeability of recycled aggregate PC but also significantly enhanced its flexural tensile strength. B.Singh and Venkati et al. [39,40,41] performed experiments on the mechanical properties of fly ash and aggregate particle size in PC and found that the compressive and flexural strengths could be maximised by using a mixture of 20% fly ash and a 10 mm diameter of coarse aggregate, as, after 28 days of curing, there was a clear nonlinear decreasing relationship between the fly ash content and both the compressive strength and porosity.
In order to improve the problem of high crushing values and the water absorption of waste concrete aggregate, Sun Jishu et al. [42] used a water glass and silane coupling agent to chemically strengthen the waste concrete aggregate and studied the change rule of crushing value and water absorption before and after strengthening. Li Feng et al. [43] believe that the addition of polymers usually has a positive effect on the mechanical properties of PC, which can effectively improve its compressive strength and flexural strength. The addition of polymers enhances the viscosity of cementitious materials, leading to a decrease in permeability, but can effectively improve the durability of PC [44,45]. Hari et al. [46] investigated the mechanical characteristics of styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR)-modified PC, examining the shrinkage and clogging characteristics. The results showed that the flexural strength of the PC was significantly increased, the flexural strength of the HDPE geogrid was almost twice that of the non-reinforced PC, and that the modification of the PC with styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) also enhanced its mechanical properties.

3. Preparation of PC

3.1. Design of Mix Proportion

At present, the influence of aggregate gradation, bone cement ratio, fly ash content, and reinforcement agent content on the compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, frost resistance, effective porosity, and permeability coefficient of permeable concrete is mostly studied through orthogonal experiments. By conducting experiments, the compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, frost resistance, effective porosity, and permeability coefficient of permeable concrete were obtained, as well as the optimal aggregate gradation, bone cement ratio, fly ash content, and reinforcing agent content data.
Luo Fasheng et al. [47] concluded that increasing the dosage of cementitious materials will increase the volume of the surplus slurry, which in turn improves the aggregate spacing. The stress is borne by the aggregate, and the inter-aggregate presence in the slurry, due to the intrinsic mechanical properties of the hardened slurry, is much weaker than that in the aggregate, meaning that the overall stiffness of the concrete at this time decreases and that the concrete abrasion resistance also decreases. When the amount of aggregate is too high, some of the aggregate is in direct contact with the concrete, and when the concrete is stressed, the aggregate is prone to relative slip, leading to the instability of the skeleton structure, resulting in spalling of the aggregate and the deterioration of the concrete abrasion resistance. When the pulp to aggregate ratio is in the appropriate range, the thickness of the pulp parcel layer on the surface of the coarse aggregate is appropriate, forming a stable embedded architecture, and the embedded locking effect between the aggregates is enhanced, which improves the mechanical properties of the concrete and abrasion resistance. The thickness of the slurry increases with the increase in the water–cement ratio, and the thickness of the slurry hanging on small-sized aggregates is higher than that on large-sized aggregates. The thickness of the slurry shows a trend of first increasing and then decreasing with the addition of fly ash. Due to the presence of a hardened layer of cement mortar on the surface of recycled aggregates, the bonding strength between recycled aggregates and new mortar decreases compared to natural aggregates. The increase in the replacement rate of recycled aggregates will significantly reduce the flexural strength of permeable concrete. The detection methods for the thickness of permeable concrete aggregate coating mainly include the core drilling method and the non-destructive method. The core drilling method involves directly measuring the thickness of aggregate slurry by drilling core samples on permeable concrete structures. This method is intuitive and reliable, but it may cause certain damage to the concrete structure. The non-destructive testing method uses non-destructive testing techniques, such as electromagnetic waves and ultrasonic waves, to calculate the thickness of aggregate slurry by measuring the propagation speed of electromagnetic waves or ultrasonic waves in concrete. It has the advantages of easy operation and high efficiency, but the accuracy is relatively low. Optical microscope images can be used to analyse the thickness of the slurry-coating layer on the surface of aggregate particles in permeable concrete. Some researchers in Guangzhou University [48,49,50] developed many ultra-high-strength cementitious matrices with compressive strengths of even more than 160 MPa and strong film-forming abilities based on the particle-stacking models. A high-strength frost-resistant PC with a compressive strength greater than 50 MPa, flexural strength greater than 7.5 MPa, a permeability coefficient greater than 4 mm/s, and a frost resistance grade of up to F300 was prepared [51]. Yuan, W. et al. [52] examined the impact of the optimal blend quantities of fly ash, silica fume, and reinforcing agent on the attributes, micro-morphology, and phase composition of porous concrete. This research found that the advantageous properties of permeable concrete were enhanced by the simultaneous integration of appropriate quantities of fly ash, silica fume, and reinforcing agent. Brasileiro, K.P.T.V. et al. [53] analysed the strength changes in PC using superplasticiser additives, 10% silica fume, and natural aggregate, as well as PC composed of 40%, 50%, and 60% recycled aggregates. The results showed that the compressive strength decreased as the percentage of natural aggregate in the PC increased from 40% to 60% compared to the control group and that the PC with 40% recycled aggregate performed the best in all the properties analysed.

3.2. Mixing and Moulding

Since PC has special requirements for mechanical strength, hydraulic properties, permeability, durability, etc., none of the currently available standards and guidelines have adequately regulated the production process and moulding procedures under laboratory conditions. Dall Bello De Souza Risson et al. [54] proposed the use of unit weight as a control parameter to standardise the procedure for forming cylindrical and prismatic specimens of PC under laboratory conditions, choosing as a standard a hammer (weighing 2.5 kg with a height drop of 305 mm) and proposing an algorithmic control relating unit weight and porosity-related arithmetic control method as a way to determine the number of compaction blows, thus enabling the autonomous selection of porosity and the prediction of the forming strength, promoting the controllability of the production process. Wang Xifeng et al. [55] analysed the effect of the forming method on the strength and water permeability of PC and showed that the concrete obtained by the layered insertion pounding method and the top-weighting method had the best water permeability; however, the strength was low. Meanwhile, the concrete obtained by the method of inserting pounding and adding materials had excellent strength and water permeability and was able to meet the requirements of the actual construction.

4. Strength Characteristics of PC

Incorporating fibres into concrete can enhance the toughness and strength of microbial self-healing concrete. Additionally, research has shown that adding fibres can effectively control the development of cracks and promote the self-healing of larger microcracks [44]. Guang-Zhu Zhang, Xiao-Yong Wang et al. [45] explored the impact of modified fibres on the self-healing performance and interfacial compatibility of microbial mortar, and the experimental results confirm that the rough surface of the modified fibres facilitates the deposition of calcite produced by microbes and hydration products, promoting the early-stage healing rate. The strength of permeable concrete refers to its ability to withstand external forces without being damaged, mainly influenced by factors such as concrete mix strength, cement dosage, water–cement ratio, and coarse aggregate dosage. The key to improving the strength of permeable concrete lies in optimising these factors, such as determining the appropriate cement dosage and water–cement ratio. Using vibration moulding, the strength increases first and then decreases. Table 3 summarises the relationship between intensity and various factors.
It should be pointed out that, by using pressure moulding and tamping moulding, the strength increases with both. The freeze–thaw degradation mainly comes from the deterioration of the interface between cement and aggregate and can cause certain quality and strength losses.

5. Porosity, Permeability, and Characteristics

5.1. Factors Affecting Porosity

In order to satisfy the usage function of PC, i.e., good strength, air permeability, and water permeability, Putma et al. [64] believed that its porosity range should be maintained at between 11% and 35%, while the associated pore size characteristics are usually between 2 mm and 8 mm and the pore size characteristics are related to the type, size, distribution, and compaction method of the aggregates. The stone type of aggregate has a small effect on the porosity of PC; however, with the increase in the number of compaction, the effective porosity becomes lower and lower. For PC with single-size aggregate gradation, the connecting porosity will increase with the increase in aggregate size. With the increase in the water–cement ratio, the connecting porosity and design porosity will decrease gradually, and, in the case of a small water–cement ratio, the voids between aggregates could not be filled due to the lack of flowing cement slurry, resulting in the final connected porosity being much larger than the design one. Yi Chenguang et al. [65] concluded that the permeability coefficient of PC increases with the increase in aggregate size and porosity. Chen Shoukai et al. [66] addressed the problems of low strength and the unstable permeability coefficient of ordinary recycled aggregate PC by concentrating the originally uniformly distributed pores inside the ordinary recycled aggregate PC into the upper and lower connected pipes and embedding them in the pipes so as to make it have the characteristics of high strength and high permeability. Yang Yifei [67] found that the workability of the cementitious material slurry has a significant effect on the strength and water permeability of the PC. Too much flow will cause the deposition of slurry in the bottom of the concrete and a blockage of pore space, while, if the flow too small, it will lead to the mixing of concrete that is very loose and dry, which means that the ability of the aggregate linkage is reduced, which affects the compressive strength.

5.2. Effective Stress Principle and Pore Structure

Lee, M.-G. et al. [68] studied how to improve the flexural strength of ordinary permeable concrete while maintaining a high porosity and obtained methods to enhance strength and durability by studying the mechanical behaviour of reinforced permeable concrete. Barnhouse [69] confirmed through experiments that there is no corresponding relationship between the compressive strength and porosity of permeable concrete when the total porosity is greater than 30%. From this, it can be seen that there is no necessary connection between the mechanical properties of permeable concrete and the total porosity; additionally, the relationship between mechanical properties and the skeleton structure should be emphasised. Continuous porosity is the percentage of the volume of continuous pores present within the PC to the volume of the PC, as calculated by Equation (1).
C φ = 1 − m 1 − m 2 ρ f V × 100 %
Here, C φ is the continuous porosity, m 1 is the weight of the specimen after baking in an oven at 60 °C for 24 h, m 2 is the weight of the PC specimen in water, ρ f is the density of the fluid that flows through the PC at room temperature, and V is the volume of the actual test specimen.
Unlike the Terzaghi effective stress principle, in which the effective stress acts at the location of the point of contact between the soil particles, soil is a fragmented granular material, and the calculation reflects the magnitude of the contact force between particles; however, PC is not granular but is a continuous porous medium, the force of which acts in the continuum skeleton of the whole concrete. These are two completely different situations that are often mistakenly used by researchers, and the relationship between the stress of permeable concrete skeleton, pore water pressure, and total stress can be calculated by Equation (2):
σ = 1 − C φ · σ ′ + C φ · p
where σ is the total stress, σ ′ is the effective stress, and p is the pore water pressure.
Therefore, the conservation of mass of the fluid is represented by the continuity Equation (3):
C φ ∂ ρ f ∂ t + ∇ ⋅ ρ f v ⇀ = 0
According to Darcy’s law, the flow rate of a fluid in a porous medium depends on the product of the permeability coefficient and the hydraulic gradient, the permeability coefficient is closely related to the continuous porosity of the porous medium, and the hydraulic gradient reflects the change in the head (the mechanical energy per unit of weight of fluid) in the perpendicular flow direction. The reduction in the total head during the flow of fluid within PC includes friction head loss and local resistance loss. Theoretically, in comparing two PC samples of the same material with the same porosity but different pore distributions, the smaller the friction between the fluid and the pore wall is, the lower the friction head loss is, and the smaller the impact, vortex, and bypassing resistance between the fluid and the skeleton is, the lower the local resistance loss is as well. The seepage resistance can be reduced by the following methods:
(1)
Reducing the friction head loss by doping surfactant.
(2)
Reducing impingement, vortexing and bypassing resistance loss by changing the shape of the coarse aggregate by special mechanism sand.
(3)
An appropriate increase in aggregate particle size by using modified cementitious materials without reducing strength.
Porosity and permeability are both related and differentiated. The porosity of PC is the percentage of volume occupied by pores in the concrete material compared to the total volume. Permeability, on the other hand, is a property that describes the relative ease with which a porous medium can transport liquids across a hydraulic gradient; it depends on the pore structure, but the exact relationship is complex [70].

6. Durability of PC

Durability reflects the ability of PC materials to resist various external destructive factors in actual use, and the study of durability provides a better understanding of the properties of PC and serves to effectively increase the service life of concrete projects [71]. Therefore, it is important to monitor and evaluate the durability of PC materials for construction. Sathiparan et al. [72] utilised non-destructive measurements (ultrasonic velocities and resistivity method), response surface methodology, and machine learning techniques to evaluate the impairment of PC materials under external stress environments, freezing and thawing environments, and pore clogging.

6.1. Blockage Resistance

Clogging is a phenomenon in which sediment particles fill the connected and semi-connected pore spaces inside the permeable pavement during transport and accumulation, leading to a decrease in the connectivity of the pore spaces and a reduction in the PC seepage capacity [73]. Elango et al. [74] studied the clogging mechanism of PC with different aggregate gradations. The study showed that the mixtures made with larger aggregate sizes showed better clogging resistance than the corresponding graded mixtures and smaller size mixtures.

6.2. Freeze Thaw Durability

In studying the frost resistance of PC, Yin et al. [75] found that increasing the number of freeze–thaw cycles resulted in greater continuous porosity and water permeability in PC. Therefore, the number of freeze–thaw cycles has a nonlinear increasing relationship with water permeability and a nonlinear decreasing relationship with compressive strength. Xiang Junzheng et al. [76] analysed the causes of the freeze–thaw spalling of PC, and the results showed that the deterioration of PC by freeze–thaw was related to the deterioration of the aggregate–cement interface and that cracks were produced at the aggregate–cement interface of PC in water-freezing and salt-freezing environments while continuously expanding with the increase in the number of freeze–thaw cycles. Gong Li et al. [77] investigated the durability of PC subjected to the coupled effects of chemical erosion and freeze–thaw cycles in natural environments, designing a freeze–thaw cycle test under a sulphate environment. Scanning electron microscopy results show that the interfacial transition zone and cracks are the weaker links in recycled concrete, and the calcium alumina crystals and gypsum crystals generated at the internal pores of the concrete in the sulphate-freeze–thaw environment are the direct cause of the development of cracks in the later stages of the concrete. Based on 3D printing technology, Liu Chao et al. [78] proposed a model for the concentrated distribution of pore areas in 3D printed recycled concrete which revealed the deterioration mechanism of freeze–thaw damage in recycled concrete.

6.3. Abrasion Resistance

Current measures to improve the abrasion resistance of concrete mainly include optimising the composition of cementitious materials and regulating the aggregate grading. A large number of studies have been conducted to improve the abrasion resistance of concrete by adding slag, and there is evidence that, the better the abrasion resistance of coarse aggregates, the better the abrasion resistance of concrete [36]. El-Hassan et al. [79] found that the addition of recycled concrete aggregate to the raw material decreased the abrasion resistance compared to the previous one, while the addition of recycled fine glass slightly increased the abrasion resistance. Sandova et al. [80] experiments on the effect of renewable aggregates on the abrasion resistance of PC showed that the abrasion resistance of ceramic construction waste and concrete block waste aggregates (38% and 36% mass loss) was similar to that of the reference aggregate (38%), while the mass loss of the electroslag aggregate was significantly higher (up to 73%). They also found that the proportion of fines in the particle size distribution of the renewable aggregates was the key factor influencing the abrasion resistance. Table 4 summarises the relationship between durability and various factors.
As the porosity increases, the ability to resist freeze–thaw damage decreases. Conversely, as the number of freeze–thaw cycles increases, the continuous porosity and permeability coefficient of recycled aggregate permeable concrete show an increasing trend. The two are mutually coupled and promote each other. For wear resistance, large-particle-size recycled coarse aggregate is significantly better than average recycled coarse aggregate or small-particle-size recycled coarse aggregate. Pre-treatment of recycled aggregates through physical or chemical methods significantly enhances durability. The addition of rubber and fiber significantly improves the freeze–thaw cycle resistance of concrete, improves internal fine cracks, reduces the mass loss rate, and enhances resistance to internal damage. Regarding the resistance to acid corrosion, the addition of rubber and fibres has a complex impact on the performance of concrete, and further research is needed to determine their specific role in acid resistance.

7. Discussions

Although PC currently has examples of large-scale application, some key issues still exist in terms of insufficient research depth, and there are many aspects worthy of further exploration and analysis which are summarised as follows:
1.
In terms of research results, there is currently insufficient research in the literature on the correlation between various influencing factors, and there are even contradictory research results on some influencing factors.
2.
In terms of the mechanism of damage, the cracking law and mechanism of the performance of permeable recycled aggregate concrete under multi factor coupling are worthy of in-depth study. In addition, it is necessary to study the reinforcement mechanism of high-strength cementitious materials at the micro level.
3.
In terms of preparation and testing, there is no unified standard for the preparation and testing of PC, and there are still some shortcomings in the existing preparation process. The strength and permeability of PC cannot be effectively predicted through mix design, and the reliability is poor, with many technical defects.
4.
In terms of sustainable adsorption, it is still unclear whether the pollutants removed by physical adsorption, chemical binding, biological retention, photocatalysis, etc. are in a stable state. Further research is needed to achieve sustainable pollutant removal and optimise pollutant removal efficiency.
5.
In terms of the concept of green development, research topics and application technologies related to the use of plant-based PC for water storage and crop irrigation in arid and water scarce areas are still insufficient.

8. Conclusions

This paper provides an overview of the research frontiers regarding the progress of research on raw materials for PC; research on the preparation of PC; the relationship between porosity, permeability and adsorption properties; and the durability of PC. In addition, the methods of testing the performance of PC after laying and the means of detection are summarised, and the phenomenon of clogging and the methods of maintaining and restoring permeability are discussed. Finally, based on an extensive review of the current state of research on these important issues, directions for future research are identified. In the near future, by more in-depth research on the preparation technology, and through a deeper understanding of its’ properties, PC will make a greater contribution to the improvement of the world’s ecological environment and sustainable development.

Author Contributions

B.C. is the first author, who distilled ideas and completed the text based on the suggestions of the corresponding author. A.L. is the corresponding author, who provided initial suggestions and ideas for the writing content of this manuscript, conducted preliminary review and revision of the manuscript, and provided financial support. X.Z. is the third author responsible for drawing and illustrating the charts and images in the manuscript. P.H. is the fourth author responsible for collecting literature, completing some of the text, and verifying the content of the paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Guizhou Provincial Basic Research Program (Natural Science)-ZK (2024) General 600; and the Basic Research Program of Guizhou Province-ZK (2022) General 166. We thank the anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions to improve the manuscripts.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

Special thanks to the editors and reviewers who have been enthusiastic about serving this manuscript, as well as the English editor who provided translation services for the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. I would like to declare, on behalf of my co-authors, that the work described was original research that has not been published previously and is not under consideration for publication elsewhere, in whole or in part.

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Buildings 14 03419 g001
Figure 1. Actual and conceptual models of PC.
Figure 1. Actual and conceptual models of PC.
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Figure 2. Ideal aggregate with uneven surface.
Figure 2. Ideal aggregate with uneven surface.
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Table 1. Specification of natural coarse and recycled concrete aggregates [19].
Table 1. Specification of natural coarse and recycled concrete aggregates [19].
SpecificationDry-Rodded Unit Weight, kg/m3Relative Density (Specific Gravity)Absorption CapacitySize Range
Natural coase aggregate (NCA)14492.730.5%0.3–12.5 mm
Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA)12842.355.5%
Table 2. The processing process of recycled aggregates.
Table 2. The processing process of recycled aggregates.
Processing ProcessesPending ItemsEquipment UsedAchieve the Goal
Crushing and ScreeningWaste ConcreteScreening EquipmentSeparate Aggregates
Removing PollutantsAggregateWater Flotation Separators, Separators, and MagnetsRemove Impurities
Plastic Surgery TreatmentRecycled AggregateMechanical Grinding EquipmentImprove Performance
Calcination and GrindingRecycled AggregateRotary KilnRemove Impurities
Final ProgrammeThe calcined aggregate can be further processed into the required particle size through grinding equipment.
Table 3. Strength characteristics of PC with cement as bonding material [56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63].
Table 3. Strength characteristics of PC with cement as bonding material [56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63].
FactorsWater–Cement RatioPorosityRecycled Aggregate Particle Size and GradingReplacement Rate of Recycled AggregateMolding MethodsAddition of FibersFreeze–Thaw Cycle
Strength
Changes in compressive strength↗↘↘↗↘↘↗↗↘↘
Changes in tensile strength↗↘↘↗↘↘↗↗↘↘
Changes in flexural strength↗↘↘↗↘↘↗↗↘↘
↗—Strength increase with Factors, ↘—Strength decrease with Factors, ↗↘—Strength increases first and then decreases with Factors.
Table 4. Durability of PC with cement as bonding material [81,82,83,84,85,86,87].
Table 4. Durability of PC with cement as bonding material [81,82,83,84,85,86,87].
FactorsWater–Cement RatioPorosityRecycled Aggregate Particle SizeReplacement Rate of Recycled AggregateCoefficient of Thermal Expansion of AggregateAddition of Rubber or Fibre
Durability
Wear resistance changes↗↘↗↘↗↗
Changes in freeze–thaw damage↘↘↗↘↗↗
Resistance to sulfuric acid erosion changes ↘↘
↗—Durability increase with Factors, ↘—Durability decrease with Factors.
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Cui, B.; Luo, A.; Zhang, X.; Huang, P. Research Development and Key Issues of Pervious Concrete: A Review. Buildings 2024, 14, 3419. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14113419

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Cui B, Luo A, Zhang X, Huang P. Research Development and Key Issues of Pervious Concrete: A Review. Buildings. 2024; 14(11):3419. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14113419

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Cui, Bo, Aizhong Luo, Xiaohu Zhang, and Ping Huang. 2024. "Research Development and Key Issues of Pervious Concrete: A Review" Buildings 14, no. 11: 3419. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14113419

APA Style

Cui, B., Luo, A., Zhang, X., & Huang, P. (2024). Research Development and Key Issues of Pervious Concrete: A Review. Buildings, 14(11), 3419. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14113419

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