The Spatial Form of the Traditional Residences of Shanxi Merchants: A Case Study of Pingyao Ancient City, China

Abstract

The Shanxi merchants were one of the top ten merchant groups in Chinese history. From the Ming and Qing Dynasties to the Republic of China, they contributed significantly to the prosperity of China’s financial industry while also developing traditional residences adapted to the local living environment. Nevertheless, current research lacks a thorough investigation into how Shanxi merchant culture influenced the spatial forms of these residences. This study aimed to analyze the spatial forms of three types of Shanxi merchant residences in Pingyao Ancient City through a case study approach, exploring the factors influencing their spatial forms and their relationship with local culture. The focus is on how the shop residence, workshop residence, and courtyard residence types reflect the interplay between commercial activities and the sociocultural background through their spatial arrangements. The findings indicate a high degree of integration between commercial and residential functions, highlighting the profound impact of Shanxi merchant culture on social hierarchy and family structure. This research provides new insights into the spatial forms of Shanxi merchant residences, offering implications for the adaptive reuse of residences in modern urban planning and architectural design, as well as providing a theoretical basis and reference for the preservation and regeneration of architectural heritage.

1. Introduction

The traditional residences of Shanxi merchants are an essential component of northern Chinese architectural culture, showcasing the unique cultural background and lifestyle of the Shanxi merchants. The spatial forms of these residences reflect a high degree of integration between commercial and residential functions while illustrating the merchants’ understanding of social hierarchy and family structure in a specific historical context. In the study of architecture, spatial form is a core concept, referring to the layout, organization, and formal characteristics of a building [1].

Chinese traditional culture emphasizes the concepts of “family” and “interpersonal relationships”. Traditional residences, through the residents’ autonomous design and creation of spatial forms, reflect individual and family life needs, as well as their societal roles. This research draws on the theory of spatial form, aiming to explore how the spatial organization of Shanxi merchant residences reflects cultural and social contexts. Analyzing the spatial forms of architecture helps reveal how architecture, through form and layout, reflects its specific social functions and cultural background [2].

In the study of architectural heritage, spatial forms carry the lifestyle and social structure passed down through generations, serving as a material vessel for local culture and historical memory [3]. Cultural heritage, as a central issue in global cultural preservation, encompasses both tangible and intangible forms of expression. According to UNESCO’s definition, cultural heritage includes tangible heritage, such as buildings and monuments, as well as intangible heritage, such as languages, performing arts, social customs, and craftsmanship. These heritages play a crucial role in maintaining cultural diversity and fostering cultural identity. Traditional architecture, as tangible cultural heritage, includes buildings of historical, artistic, or cultural significance, reflecting the cultural characteristics of a specific period or region and highlighting the close connection between tradition and culture [4].

Current heritage conservation theories focus primarily on the physical preservation of architectural forms, with less attention paid to the relationship between the spatial forms of buildings and their cultural context. This approach often overlooks the social memory and local cultural identity embodied in the architectural space [5]. In the context of modern urbanization, the adaptive reuse of traditional buildings must balance the demands of modern functionality with the preservation of their cultural essence [6]. This study aims to analyze the factors that shaped the spatial forms of three different types of residences in Pingyao Ancient City and explore their relationship with local culture. The research provides insights into how the adaptive reuse of residences can inform modern urban planning and architectural design. This research provides new insights into the spatial forms of Shanxi merchant residences, offering implications for the adaptive reuse of residences in modern urban planning and architectural design, as well as providing a theoretical basis and reference for the preservation and regeneration of architectural heritage.

1.1. Shanxi Merchants and Traditional Residences

Merchants represent a distinct social group, and their wealth is manifested through architectural structures, which serve as material symbols of their economic success. Economic factors permeate every aspect of these structures. Therefore, in studying the spatial forms of Shanxi merchant residences, it is crucial to consider the commercial background of the merchants in order to accurately and comprehensively understand the factors that shaped their architectural forms [7].

As one of China’s top ten merchant groups, the Shanxi merchants achieved remarkable commercial success from the Ming and Qing dynasties through to the Republic of China, leaving a lasting impact on finance, transportation, and trade [8]. With their integrity, innovation, and exceptional business acumen, the Shanxi merchants developed dense commercial networks in cities such as Beijing, Tianjin, and Shanghai, and they expanded their international business activities through participation in Sino–Russian border trade and the Maritime Silk Road [9]. By establishing early exchange shops, known as “piaohao”, in regions such as Pingyao, Qixian, and Taigu, the Shanxi merchants pioneered a nationwide remittance system, contributing to China’s economic development at the time [10]. Among these, Rishengchang, China’s first financial institution, was founded in Pingyao, Shanxi, and it is considered the progenitor of China’s banking industry. Its remittance services improved the efficiency of goods circulation and capital utilization, earning Pingyao the nickname “Wall Street of China” [11].

In addition to their commercial achievements, the residential architecture of the Shanxi merchants embodied profound cultural significance, serving as a symbol of wealth and social status, as well as holding important historical and cultural value [12]. Compared with Shanxi merchant residences, Huizhou merchant residences placed greater emphasis on defense and clan culture, prioritizing secrecy and wealth protection. Jiangnan merchant residences, in contrast, focused more on decorative elements, reflecting the refined lifestyles of the wealthy elite and their prosperous commercial activities, emphasizing openness and harmony with nature. These diverse regional merchant architectures reflect the interaction between local culture and commercial activities [6].

Nonetheless, current research on architectural cultural heritage primarily focuses on natural and social factors, with insufficient attention paid to the importance of spatial aspects [13]. Beyond the traditional preservation of buildings, the protection of spaces that reflect traditional culture and regional characteristics is also essential and should be incorporated into the broader efforts to safeguard local identity and traditional architecture [14].

1.2. Ancient City of Pingyao

As one of the best-preserved ancient cities in China, Pingyao Ancient City has been profoundly influenced by Shanxi merchant culture, which has driven the city’s development throughout history [15]. As shown in Figure 1, Pingyao Ancient City is located in central Shanxi Province, China, and it was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1997, becoming a quintessential case study of ancient Chinese urban planning and architecture [16]. The city’s urban planning was shaped by Shanxi merchants’ commercial activities, resulting in a dynamic layout influenced by cultural heritage and societal needs [17]. The Shanxi merchants residence within the ancient city supported their commercial activities while also reflecting their lifestyle and social structure [18]. These residences combined traditional cultural elements, historical spatial structures, and characteristics of Shanxi merchant culture, forming a unique spatial form that showcases the diversity and distinctiveness of cultural heritage [19].

By reviewing the cultural background and spatial form theories of Shanxi merchant residences, their close connection with local culture is revealed, laying the foundation for case studies on the residences in Pingyao Ancient City.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Case Study

Pingyao Ancient City covers an area of 2.25 square kilometers, with city walls extending 6.4 km, and it is overall well preserved. The north, east, and west walls are straight, while the southern wall follows a winding course due to its construction along the ancient Zhongdu River [20]. There are six original ancient city gates, with two located on both the east and west sides, and one each on the north and south sides. In modern times, an additional gate was constructed on the eastern and southern sections, bringing the total number of existing gates to eight. The streets of Pingyao form a dense, interconnected network, commonly described as “four main roads, eight major streets, and seventy-two lanes” (Figure 2). There are 3798 courtyards of historic value, 448 of which are well preserved, mostly consisting of residences or commercial buildings [21]. The spatial configuration and architectural style of Pingyao Ancient City epitomize the characteristics of ancient Chinese cities during the Ming and Qing Dynasties.

Although the residences in Pingyao Ancient City were initially built in the style of quadrangle courtyards, their functions changed under the influence of the Shanxi merchants and commercial activities [22]. According to the classification standards set forth in the UNESCO [23] “Practical Guidelines for the Protection, Restoration, and Environmental Management of Residences in Pingyao Ancient City”, the types of Shanxi merchant residences are divided into three categories based on function: store residences, which combine trade and living functions; workshop residences, which integrate production and living spaces; and courtyard residences, which serve as the homes of successful merchants.

2.2. Methods

This study adopts a qualitative research approach through a case study methodology, which involves an in-depth analysis of one or more specific cases, typically applied to complex social phenomena with multiple variables [24]. The research focuses on the Shanxi merchant’s residence in Pingyao Ancient City, exploring their spatial form and cultural background. There are nearly 4000 traditional residences of heritage value in the ancient city, of which over 400 are well preserved, with 40 identified as exemplary cases [25]. Data for this study were collected through multiple field investigations conducted from February to May 2024, focusing on well-preserved store residences, workshop residences, and courtyard residences that allowed entry.

As shown in Figure 3, the data collection process in this study included the following steps. First, a literature review was conducted to understand the cultural background of merchants and to gather secondary data such as architectural plans, elevations, and historical photographs. Next, field surveys were carried out, documenting historically significant and well-preserved Shanxi merchant residences through photography. Based on these surveys, representative traditional residences were selected for detailed architectural mapping. Sketches of the city’s general layout, building distribution, and surrounding environment were also produced to lay the groundwork for further research. Additionally, interviews with local residents provided insights into the general condition of the ancient city and its development, while observations of the residents’ lifestyle and behavioral patterns were recorded. A detailed understanding of the living environment, current living conditions, and cultural features of the city was obtained and documented.

The data analysis in this study was based on the visual data derived from these photographs, measurements, and architectural drawings, combined with the historical and cultural background of Shanxi merchants. A content analysis was used to interpret the spatial form, helping to understand the factors contributing to the spatial forms of Shanxi merchant residences and to summarize the connections between merchant culture and traditional residential architecture [26].

The primary challenges encountered during data collection included poor preservation of certain buildings, restricted access, and technical difficulties in spatial measurements. Through multiple visits, supplemental data, and communication with local heritage protection authorities, some of these issues were resolved. In conclusion, this study identifies the factors that shaped the spatial form of Shanxi merchant residences and their relationship with local culture, providing references for future architectural preservation and design.

3. Results

3.1. Distribution and Classification of Traditional Residences of Shanxi Merchants in the Ancient City of Pingyao

Pingyao Ancient City is a historic and culturally significant city in China, recognized as a national key cultural relic protection site and a UNESCO World Heritage Site [16]. It records the prosperous history of China’s financial industry during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The spatial layout of the ancient city integrates both defensive and commercial trading functions, serving as a hub for goods production, trade exchanges, and residential purposes.

On either side of the commercial streets in the ancient city, store residences are arranged with a front store and a rear residence, providing convenience for business activities while offering private living spaces for families. The combination of commercial and residential functions ensures both convenience and security. Behind the main streets, workshop residences are located along secondary streets or alleys, integrating handicraft production and living functions. Their front-workshop and rear-residence layout meets both production and living needs. Courtyard residences, by contrast, are situated in quieter areas outside the city, covering large areas with complex layouts, often composed of multiple courtyards, reflecting the owner’s prominent social status and economic power. The distribution of these three residential forms collectively shapes the spatial expression of Shanxi merchant culture within Pingyao Ancient City, demonstrating the harmonious integration of commercial and residential needs (Figure 4).

3.2. Analysis of the Spatial Form of Three Types of Traditional Residences

The three types of residences in Pingyao Ancient City form a spatial form through the interplay of commercial, residential, and sociocultural factors [27]. With a well-planned spatial layout, they achieve an organic combination of dynamic and static spaces, as well as public and private areas.

3.2.1. Store Residence with a Front Store and Rear Residence

As shown in Figure 5, the layout of the commercial streets in Pingyao Ancient City follows a “土” shape, with the most representative being South Street, centered around the City Tower. Serving as the central axis, South Street is the commercial heart of Pingyao Ancient City, home to a wide variety of industries and craftsmen, offering everything from various trades and crafts to essential goods. The convenient layout of the commercial streets and roads in Pingyao Ancient City played a significant role in promoting the development of Shanxi merchants and store residences.

Store residences were a common residential type for Shanxi merchants involved in commercial activities [28]. These merchants typically located their stores along both sides of the bustling commercial streets, with more private living spaces positioned further from the street. As shown in Figure 6, the layout often utilized the reverse-facing building of a traditional quadrangle courtyard as the storefront, while the living quarters, consisting of courtyards and buildings, extended inward from the shop. The entire store residence utilizes a front-store, rear-residence layout with a two-entry through-hall design, embodying both the characteristics of Shanxi merchant residences and the functionality of a commercial space.

The essential characteristics of commercial streets and residential spaces are fundamentally different—one is dynamic, while the other is static; one is open, while the other demands privacy. In the store residences of Pingyao Ancient City, these contrasting relationships are skillfully resolved. Through the use of spatial transition techniques, these two environments are seamlessly integrated, allowing Shanxi merchants to navigate effortlessly between the two. This distinctive store–residential model reflects the spatial arrangement, showcasing the Shanxi merchants’ adeptness in managing spatial forms and their mastery of spatial design.

1.

Interior and Exterior.

As shown in Figure 7, the store residence divides the entire area into two spatial forms: exterior and interior. The first is the commercial space, an exterior public space formed by the commercial street and the store, serving as the primary venue for trade and transactions. The second is the residential space, an interior private area composed of courtyard residences, and it serves as the living quarters for the residents.

To enhance the privacy of the residential spaces, the entrances from the street to the courtyard residences are designed to be discreet. Some entrances are narrow, others pass through the shops, and some are located on side streets (Figure 8). This design emphasizes the prominence of the store while creating a clear distinction between the exterior store space and the interior residential space yet maintaining a close connection between the two.

2.

Dynamic and Static.

The optimal location for commercial trade activities is along the commercial streets. Dynamic spaces are primarily used for daytime commercial and production activities, characterized by openness and fluidity; static spaces are mainly reserved for nighttime family life and rest, emphasizing privacy and tranquility. These two types of spaces complement each other in daily life, depending on their time of use and function. As shown in Figure 9, these two contrasting forms—dynamic and static—are organized within the same architectural space, creating a remarkable spatial artistry.

The store space in store residences is used to display goods and receive customers. The entrance faces the street in a prominent location, facilitating transactions, with the store sign centrally positioned (Figure 10).

The formation of such a spatial form is due to multiple factors: Pingyao Ancient City is situated on flat terrain with convenient transportation and few restrictions, allowing merchants to fully exercise their creativity. Pingyao merchants had strong economic power, providing the capital to build superior stores and residences. Many Pingyao merchants traveled extensively for business, absorbing architectural elements from different regions and integrating them with local characteristics, resulting in the distinctive appearance of store residences. The layout of store residences, which separates commercial activities from living spaces, was inspired by the “store in front, residence in the rear” design commonly found in regions such as Suzhou and Hangzhou in Jiangnan region. This spatial form reflects the mutual influence and adaptation among merchants from different regions [30].

Rishengchang was one of the earliest exchange shops in China, located on West Street in Pingyao Ancient City, Shanxi Province (Figure 11) [25]. The store faces north with its back to the south and comprises 21 individual buildings, large and small, with a total area of approximately 2000 square meters.

The main spatial forms of Rishengchang include exterior and interior spaces. As shown in Figure 12, the side rooms in the front courtyard served as the counter rooms for conducting business with the public. The side rooms in the middle hall were used as the letter room and account room, while the three central rooms were designated for receiving guests and holding meetings. Behind the middle hall was the manager’s room. On the east side of the southern hall were the kitchen and dining room, while the western side rooms were primarily used for guest accommodation, with a living room located at the southern end.

Figure 13 displays a sectional view of Rishengchang. The entire store represents a typical spatial form of a store residence. It combines the store space and living space, employing a hybrid spatial form where public and private spaces intersect. This spatial arrangement allows merchants to conveniently retreat to the rear residence for rest after business operations, reflecting a high degree of integration between commercial and residential functions.

Figure 14 shows the interior layout of the functional spaces in Rishengchang. With their extensive experience in the financial industry and understanding of spatial design, Shanxi merchants created a spatial form combining function and structure for the exchange.

As the largest exchange shop in China, Rishengchang experienced frequent financial transactions. For security purposes, a metal wire net was installed over the entire courtyard (Figure 15). Small bells were hung on the net, which would sound an alarm if an intruder attempted to enter the premises.

3.2.2. Workshop Residence with a Front Workshop and Rear Residence

In the layout of Pingyao Ancient City, workshop residences, which combine production and living spaces, are situated away from the bustling “土”-shaped commercial streets. They are situated behind or to the sides of the store residences, in a designated area for workshop residences (Figure 16). Workshop residences serve as both production and storage spaces, where much of the work, in addition to daily living, takes place. Unlike store residences, workshop residences do not engage in commercial trade within the residential space, and transactions with customers are not conducted inside the residence.

The workshop residences in Pingyao Ancient City adopt a multicombination approach based on traditional triplex and quadrangle courtyard forms.

Figure 17 shows the basic spatial form of triplex workshop residences in Pingyao Ancient City. These residences typically follow a symmetrical layout along a central axis. Unlike the quadrangle courtyard form, they do not have a reverse-facing building, and the main entrance is often placed between the blank walls, allowing convenient access to the streets and alleys. In triplex form workshop residences, the absence of a reverse-facing building results in the side rooms being used for storage and production, while the south-facing main room remains the living space.

Figure 18 shows the common spatial form of quadrangle courtyard workshop residences. The main entrance is visible from the streets and alleys, facilitating production activities, which typically involve handicraft industries, such as textiles, silk, and ceramics. The rear courtyard is used for residential purposes, offering relative privacy and a comfortable environment for family life while ensuring the safety of the living space. The spatial form of a front workshop and rear residence allows production activities and residential life to remain independent while being closely integrated. The main room is the owner’s living space. The side rooms are generally used as workshops, while the reverse-facing building usually serves as a warehouse. The entire courtyard functions both as a production space and a living space.

Figure 19 illustrates the linear combination of the basic form of a workshop residence, with the doors of the front and side courtyards located on secondary streets. The entrance has no steps or thresholds but, instead, features a ramp to facilitate vehicle access, primarily for production and transportation purposes. The rear courtyard serves as the living space, ensuring no interference between the front and rear areas. This spatial form is very similar to the barrier-free spaces that we advocate for today.

Figure 20 shows a parallel-arranged workshop residence, oriented with the main building facing south. The inner courtyard is spacious and used for living, while the outer courtyard is designated for production and storage. The main entrance faces a major street, while the side entrance opens to an alley, making this another typical workshop residence in Pingyao Ancient City.

For example, the vinegar workshop residence at No. 28 Dongguojia Alley (Figure 21) follows the north-facing quadrangle courtyard form, as shown in “Workshop Residential Spatial Combination Form and Route Map 2”. The main entrance is located on the east side of the reverse-facing building, directly facing the alley, and a ramp replaces steps to facilitate the transportation of goods. The original spatial layout within the courtyard remains clearly visible, with the side rooms in the front courtyard used for workshop production and the reverse-facing building serving as storage. The three main rooms in the rear courtyard face south and are used for living and resting. The functional division within the courtyard is well organized, with production and living activities arranged in an orderly manner, reflecting the basic requirements of residents for workshop residences.

3.2.3. Complex Courtyard Residences

With the development of a commodity economy and the prosperity of the market, Shanxi merchants accumulated significant capital, which led them to expand their commercial activities and construct symbolic courtyard residences. Through their extensive experience and expertise in trade, Shanxi merchants gradually established themselves as one of the most influential merchant groups in China. In addition to pursuing commercial success, Shanxi merchants also sought a peaceful and comfortable living environment, leading them to invest their accumulated wealth in the construction of courtyard residences. This complex residential spatial form reflects their economic power and social status, as well as the influence of thousands of years of traditional Chinese thought and cultural values [32].

Most of the courtyard residences of Shanxi merchants in Pingyao Ancient City are located outside the ancient city, away from the bustling commercial streets. The spatial form of these courtyard residences has several distinctive characteristics:

3.

Rigorous layout.

The courtyard residences of Shanxi merchants typically consist of more than one quadrangle courtyard, with multiple courtyards surrounded by buildings and a central courtyard, forming a complex spatial layout. For example, the former residence of Lei Lütai, the founder of China’s first exchange shop, Rishengchang, located in Pingyao Ancient City, was designated as a National Key Cultural Relic Protection Unit in 2013. As shown in Figure 22, the residence faces south with four courtyards: the main courtyard is on the west, a secondary courtyard is on the east, and there is an eastern side courtyard and a western side courtyard. These four courtyards are interconnected but maintain their individuality. The residence has over 40 rooms and covers an area of approximately 5000 square meters [25]. Each courtyard has a specific functional division, such as the front courtyard for receiving guests and office work, and the rear courtyard for family life. The eastern side courtyard houses the kitchen and servant quarters, while the western side courtyard was once used as a study. To the south of the eastern main courtyard lies an open space used as a garden. This spatial layout provides excellent ventilation and natural lighting, ensuring the independence and privacy of each functional area, creating a secluded and comfortable living environment. It also reflects the social status and economic power of Shanxi merchants.

4.

Grand scale.

The courtyard residences are enclosed by imposing high walls, with their thickness and height far exceeding typical standards (Figure 23). Shanxi merchants enclosed themselves and their families within such serene spaces. First, after enduring long periods in the chaotic and noisy business world, they sought peace and tranquility. Second, having left their hometowns and painstakingly accumulated wealth, they developed a heightened sense of caution, increasing the scale of the courtyard walls for added security. Third, Shanxi merchants often concealed large sums of money within the thick walls of their residences [31].

5.

Luxurious appearance.

In feudal society, although merchants were wealthy, their social status was relatively low. Under the strict architectural hierarchy, only official buildings were permitted to have luxurious designs [33]. Some merchants demonstrated a high level of social responsibility by making financial contributions to support the imperial court during times of need. In return, the court granted them official titles, elevating their social status. For example, Hou Dianyuan, the manager of the Rishengchang exchange shop, built a luxurious composite residence in this way, enhancing his family’s status and highlighting his new identity. This behavior reflects the responsibility and contribution of Shanxi merchants in maintaining social stability.

6.

Lavish interior decoration.

The interior decoration of courtyard residences was highly refined, with meticulous attention paid to detail and taste. These homes typically featured multiple functional rooms, such as reception halls, studies, banquet halls, and bedrooms. Each room had a specific purpose and a distinctive decorative style, with a spatial layout that emphasized symmetry and order, fully embodying the esthetic principles of traditional Chinese architecture [6].

Due to their extensive travels and business experience, Shanxi merchants accumulated significant wealth and developed a refined sense of artistic taste [12]. In their interior design, they skillfully blended regional characteristics with traditional culture, elevating the elegance and sophistication of their living spaces. As shown in Figure 24, the walls were often adorned with paintings of the “Four Gentlemen”—plum, orchid, bamboo, and chrysanthemum—symbols of noble character. These traditional motifs, commonly associated with the Jiangnan region, were introduced into the interior, creating a refined and elegant atmosphere. Additionally, exquisite porcelain was frequently displayed in the reception hall, symbolizing wealth and carrying deeper cultural meanings. For instance, blue-and-white porcelain vases represented purity and elegance, while plum blossom motifs symbolized resilience and longevity. The placement of these items was carefully arranged to emphasize harmony and balance, reflecting the owner’s refined esthetic sensibility and deep cultural appreciation.

7.

Full of merchants’ values.

In Chinese culture, water symbolizes wealth, and merchants placed the greatest importance on its accumulation. In courtyard residences, certain architectural techniques were cleverly used to reflect these merchant values. For example, the inward-sloping single-pitched roof was designed to direct rainwater into the courtyard, symbolizing the accumulation of wealth (Figure 25). The central courtyard layout and high thresholds further enhanced this symbolism, signifying that wealth would not flow away. Additionally, large water vats were often placed in the center of the courtyard and kept overflowing, reflecting the merchants’ expectations and emphasis on the accumulation of wealth [6].

Summary: It is evident that these three types of Shanxi merchant residences showcase the diversity and flexibility of architectural forms. These residences draw from the spatial layouts of traditional residences and reflect spatial forms influenced by Shanxi merchant culture.

4. Discussion

4.1. Influential Factors on the Spatial Form of Traditional Residences of Shanxi Merchants

While architecture is rooted in nature, with natural factors playing a fundamental role in its formation, it also serves as the primary carrier of human social activity and an essential part of society. Consequently, social factors become the decisive force in shaping the spatial form of building [34]. Spatial form is a fundamental element in architectural design, shaping the layout, usage patterns, and functional divisions of a building. The spatial form influences the daily activities of the occupants and is closely related to the functions that the building is designed to fulfill [1]. In Shanxi merchant residences, functional needs directly affected the spatial layout, with different functions, such as commercial and residential functions, being separated, thus defining the spatial form of the residences [35]. The residents, as a group with long-standing subjective cognition and emotional attachment to historical and cultural regions, imbued these architectural spaces with cultural and social significance [36]. The Shanxi merchant residences, centered around commerce, gradually took shape under the influence of these social and economic demands. They served as spaces for production and trade activities, playing a key role in regional economic coordination and development.

4.1.1. Commercial Operation and Business Model

The commercial activities of Shanxi merchants followed two main models: the first involved purchasing raw materials for processing and production, followed by the sale of the products; the second was the direct purchase and sale of goods. As residences that served as centers for trade and the collection of goods, their survival and development depended entirely on the flow of goods, which was closely linked to commercial transportation. Convenient transportation conditions significantly influenced the location and spatial form of residences that focused on commercial trade [37]. In the case of store residences and workshop residences, their spatial forms were primarily determined by the functional division of courtyards, with entrances dispersed along streets, resulting in diverse and flexible spatial configurations.

For instance, the “processing and production” function required large courtyards to serve as production areas, while the “living” function necessitated spaces for residence and rest within the building. To facilitate the “transportation of goods”, residence entrances were designed with ramps instead of thresholds or steps, allowing for the smooth movement of carts and other transport vehicles. The “sale of goods” required spacious shops to serve as transaction spaces. After raw materials were processed in workshop residences, the finished products were transported to store residences for sale. These commercial activities, carried out within the residences, shaped architectural environments and spatial forms with distinct local characteristics.

4.1.2. Commercial Consciousness

With the expansion of commerce and family wealth, as well as years of hard work away from their families, Shanxi merchants deeply recognized the importance of family life. After years of working outside their hometowns, they brought back money, wealth, and the ability to embrace new technologies, materials, and ideas. Moreover, their long-term exposure to business, finance, and craftsmanship helped shape their commercial values, which were concretely reflected in the architectural spaces.

Although the spatial forms of store residences and workshop residences aimed to separate commercial and residential areas, commercial activities inevitably impacted daily life. As family businesses expanded, merchants required larger spaces for production and trade, which led to a reduction in living space. The traditional family lifestyle, which required larger living spaces, encouraged merchants to construct courtyard residences in their hometowns. The complex spatial forms of these courtyards fulfilled the family’s living needs and reflected the customs and values of Shanxi merchants, holding significant cultural, historical, and artistic value.

Summary: The above discussion explored the multifunctional spatial forms of Shanxi merchant residences and their influencing factors. In contrast, non-merchant residences have a more singular spatial organization, primarily centered around family life, with a compact layout that emphasizes privacy and practicality in living spaces. Non-merchant residences typically lack complex commercial functions, leading to more traditional architectural forms, with simpler and more enclosed spatial designs. This contrast further highlights the distinctiveness of Shanxi merchant residences in terms of spatial form, as well as their deep connection to commercial culture.

4.2. Insights from Shanxi Merchant Culture and the Conservation of Traditional Residence

It is broadly accepted that different cultural traits are decisive in shaping various building forms [38]. In the ancient Chinese language, the word for culture is 文化 (pronounced wen hua). 文 refers to various colored, interlocking veins, and 化 implies the change in and generation of form or the transformation of the nature of things that requires the improvement of behavior toward the better [39].

Shanxi merchant culture is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese culture, particularly in the Confucian ideals of “benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trust,” which shaped the principles of their business operations and management. “Putting righteousness before profit and gaining profit through righteousness” was the secret to the business success of Shanxi merchants. This value system was reflected in their commercial behavior and had a profound impact on their architectural choices. Shanxi merchant residences embodied the ideals of respect for family and social order.

Based on the traditional courtyard residence structure, these residences were adapted to meet the dual needs of business and family life, resulting in a spatial form with distinct functional zones [29]. Despite functional innovations, these residences strictly adhered to the basic layout of courtyard residences, reflecting the Confucian ideals of family cohesion and social hierarchy. The courtyard layout, which separated commercial and family activity areas, ensured a harmonious balance between the convenience of trade and the privacy of residential life. High walls, deep courtyards, and complex structures reflected the merchants’ need for wealth accumulation and privacy protection, while their pursuit of esthetic refinement in decoration showcased their emphasis on cultural cultivation and social status. This architectural design reflected the Shanxi merchants’ economic strength and the core values of traditional Chinese culture.

Similar to Shanxi merchants, other merchant groups, such as the Huizhou merchants from Anhui, were also deeply influenced by Confucian culture, with their architectural layout and spatial form centered around ancestral halls and clan culture [7]. The ancestral hall, as a key element in Huizhou merchant architecture, placed great importance on location, structure, and layout. Influenced by Confucian thought, these buildings did not seek luxury or excessive decoration, instead encouraging future generations to practice frugality and integrity. In addition to ancestral halls, Huizhou merchants dedicated most of their living space to grain production, with only the remaining areas used for their family’s residence. This moral and ethical guidance, which imposed constraints on clan members, had a significant influence on residences in Anhui.

These historically preserved residential buildings are a form of culture in and of themselves [40]. To effectively protect these historical remnants, it is essential to maintain the authenticity of the architecture while introducing appropriate functional updates to give them modern value [41]. In the preservation process, the appearance of the residences should be respected, using traditional construction materials and techniques wherever possible, while adapting to the demands of modern residential and commercial functions. By replacing certain functions, traditional residences can be repurposed to reflect new modern uses, unlocking their potential for reuse and exploring new functions and values [42]. The preservation of traditional residences provides an opportunity to convey courtyard culture, linking cultural heritage to residential spatial forms and offering inspiration for the design of modern architectural spaces with similar characteristics.

4.3. Adaptive Reuse of Traditional Residences and Modern Implications

The multifunctional spatial layout of Shanxi merchant residences offers valuable insights for modern architecture and urban planning. These residences not only integrated residential and commercial functions but also used flexible spatial designs to meet the dual needs of family life and commercial activities. Today, the planning of residential areas and commercial streets in many Chinese communities still reflects traces of ancient residential systems, demonstrating the potential value of traditional residences in the modern urbanization process.

Based on the historical experience of Shanxi merchant residences, developing a design guidelines manual can provide theoretical support for modern housing and urban models. For example, the integration of residential and commercial spaces remains relevant in today’s mixed-use buildings. By introducing modern facilities and optimizing functions, traditional residences can meet contemporary housing needs while serving as dual carriers of cultural heritage and economic development.

Adaptive reuse is one of the key strategies for the conservation of traditional architecture [4]. Through reasonable spatial transformations and functional optimization, Shanxi merchant residences can retain their cultural essence while being endowed with new functions and values. The preservation of these historically and culturally significant buildings can promote their regeneration in modern society. For instance, the commercial spaces in store residences could serve as venues for modern commercial activities, while the courtyards could be transformed into cultural activity centers or social spaces. Through this adaptive reuse, Shanxi merchant residences can continue to serve contemporary society and become a bridge between traditional culture and modern needs.

5. Conclusions

This study analyzes the spatial forms of three typical types of Shanxi merchant residences in Pingyao Ancient City—store residences, workshop residences, and courtyard residences—revealing how these residences, through the integration of Shanxi merchant culture, became distinctive cultural symbols and important material cultural heritage in China. The research demonstrates that these residences reflect the profound impact of commercial activities on spatial layout, and, through functional zoning, they effectively met the diverse needs of production, trade, and family life, reflecting the social status and cultural values of Shanxi merchant families.

Their spatial layout skillfully integrates commercial and residential functions, demonstrating how to achieve a balance between culture and function in multifunctional buildings. This provides valuable historical reference for multifunctional spaces in contemporary urban planning and architectural design.

Nonetheless, the rapid development of modern urbanization has introduced challenges, particularly in balancing the preservation of historical authenticity with the demands of modern functionality. Therefore, in preserving the core spatial characteristics of Shanxi merchant residences, it is essential to ensure their practical use and cultural transmission in modern society through appropriate restoration and development. This process provides valuable guidance for cultural conservation and innovation, with broad potential applications.

Although this study has revealed the cultural significance and adaptability of Shanxi merchant residences’ spatial forms, further exploration of their diversity and influence in other regions is warranted. Future research should investigate the complexities of traditional buildings adapting to modern environments, particularly how to maintain their core characteristics through reasonable restoration and development to better serve contemporary society and promote the continuous transmission and regeneration of cultural heritage.