Grid-Connected Solar Photovoltaic (PV) System for Covered Linkways
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review on Solar Photovoltaics Technology
2.1. Non-Quantifiable Environmental Benefits
2.2. PV Market Worldwide
- Identify the applicability of installing solar PV systems on covered linkways.
- An economical evaluation of different solar PV systems for covered linkways.
- Explore the impact of gross cost savings, net cost savings, and payback period with the fluctuation of tariff rates.
- Promote solar power in covered linkways to reduce the use of non-renewable energy sources in public infrastructure.
- Determine the most economically feasible solar PV option for covered linkways.
- Demonstrate the impact of tariff rate changes on expected cost savings in different solar PV systems.
3. Solar PV in Covered Linkways in Singapore
- (1)
- Standard covered linkways: used when there is high pedestrian traffic, such as linkways connecting to mass transport hubs.
- (2)
- HDB’s covered linkways: used in public housing estates and expected to blend in with the environment and attain aesthetic harmony between precincts.
- (3)
- High covered linkways: positioned across minor roads and vehicular accesses to connect low covered linkways on both sides to offer weather protection for cyclists and pedestrians.
- (1)
- Shallow roof profile and neutral color: Allow the buildings and surrounding landscape to take center stage. The use of a shallow roof profile and neutral color (i.e., light grey/mid grey/off-white) is recommended.
- (2)
- Columns on one side and lightweight roofing and structures: For a more porous walking experience, columns are to be on only one side of the covered linkways, and lightweight roofing and structures are to be used.
Solar PV System on HDB’s Covered Linkways in Tropical Climate
4. Calculations of Solar Power Generation
5. Cost Implications from Solar PV in Covered Linkways
Sensitivity Analysis
6. Discussion
- The cost savings from solar PV systems are higher as the capacity of the system increases. However, the initial cost of the system is still a prevailing problem. Between 2009 and 2021, the prices of crystalline silicon modules have dropped by between 88% and 95% [66]. Consequently, there is a chance for higher economic gains in the future by implementing solar PV systems in constructed environments.
- The availability of solar power buying schemes helps deliver excessive electricity generated by the solar PV system. The establishment of modern schemes further enhances the viability of applying solar technology to generate power requirements while covering its initial costs by delivering excessive electricity to the grid.
- The proposed solar PV system enables a sustainable built environment in addition to the economic benefits identified in this study. The use of solar PV reduces the dependency on non-renewable energy sources and thereby provides a pathway to clean energy generation.
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AdER | Additional electricity requirement (kWh) |
AnER | Annual electricity requirement (kWh) |
AEG | Annual electricity generation (kWh) |
EESG | Excess electricity sold back to the grid (kWh) |
ACGRID ELEC. | Additional cost of electricity from the grid ($) |
ET | Electricity tariff ($) |
CSNEEG | Cost savings if there is no excess electricity generated ($) |
CSEEG | Cost savings if there is excess electricity generated |
AVGHHWEP | Average half hourly wholesale energy price ($) |
NS | Net savings ($)—Actual financial benefit obtained via solar PV utilization |
CS | Cost savings ($)—Gross financial benefit obtained via solar PV utilization |
MC | Maintenance cost ($)—Expenditure incurred due to periodic and reactive maintenance activities |
PBP | Payback period (years)—The amount of time required to recover the cost of the initial investment in a solar PV system |
IC | Initial cost ($)—The expenditure associated with purchasing and installing of a solar PV system |
DPBP | Discounted payback period (years)—Number of years required to have equal accumulated discounted cost savings to initial cost |
Y | The period preceding the period in which the cumulative cash flow turns positive |
Abs(n) | Cumulative cash flow in year before recovery |
P | Discounted cash flow in year after recovery |
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Technology | Module Efficiency |
---|---|
Mono-crystalline Silicon | 15–20% |
Polycrystalline Silicon | 13–17% |
Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) | 15.7–16.4% |
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) | 17.9–18.6% |
Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) | 12.3% |
Technology | Temperature Coefficient [%/°C] |
---|---|
Crystalline Silicon | −0.109 to −0.124 |
Thin-film solar cells (e.g., Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS), Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) and Amorphous Silicon (a-Si)) | −0.0984 |
System Information | |
---|---|
Module Type | Thin-Film—CIGS |
Array Type | Fixed |
Tilt (degree) | 20°—Default value for fixed array |
Azimuth (degree) | 180°—the default value for locations in the northern hemisphere (applicable for Singapore) |
Inverter | Micro-inverter |
Parameter | Percentage Value | Reason |
---|---|---|
Soiling | 2 | Soiling is affected by both location and weather. Losses caused by dirt and other foreign matter on the PV module’s surface that prevent solar radiation from reaching the cells. Soiling losses are significant in high-traffic, high-pollution locations with intermittent rain. |
Shading | 3 | Reduced incident solar radiation generated by shadows caused by nearby objects such as buildings or trees, or by self-shading for modules placed in rows when modules in one row cause shadows on those in an adjacent row. |
Snow | 0 | Snow covering the array reduces the system’s annual output. |
Mismatch | 2 | Electrical losses induced by minor changes in manufacturing flaws between modules in the array, resulting in somewhat varying current-voltage characteristics. The default value of is 2%. |
Wiring | 2 | Resistive losses in the direct current and alternating current wires that connect modules, inverters, and other system components. The default value is 2%. |
Connections | 0.5 | Resistive losses in electrical connectors in the system. The default value is 0.5%. |
Light induced degradation | 1.5 | The effect of light-induced photovoltaic cell deterioration on the array’s power during the first few months of operation. The default value is 1.5%. |
Name plate rating | 1 | The nameplate rating loss accounts for the accuracy of the manufacturer’s nameplate rating. |
Age | 0 | Weathering of photovoltaic modules influences the array’s performance over time. The default value is zero. |
Availability | 3 | System output reduction caused by scheduled and unscheduled system shutdowns for maintenance, grid disruptions, and other operational issues. The default value is 3%. |
Month | Solar Radiation (kWh /m2/Day) | AC Energy (kWh) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
4 kW System Size | 5 kW System Size | 10 kW System Size | 20 kW System Size | ||
January | 4.77 | 470 | 587 | 1174 | 2348 |
February | 5.10 | 452 | 565 | 1129 | 2258 |
March | 4.67 | 453 | 567 | 1133 | 2266 |
April | 4.58 | 430 | 538 | 1076 | 2151 |
May | 4.14 | 403 | 504 | 1008 | 2016 |
June | 3.89 | 366 | 457 | 915 | 1829 |
July | 4.04 | 393 | 491 | 983 | 1966 |
August | 4.12 | 404 | 505 | 1009 | 2019 |
September | 4.36 | 411 | 514 | 1028 | 2055 |
October | 4.49 | 438 | 548 | 1095 | 2191 |
November | 4.35 | 413 | 516 | 1032 | 2063 |
December | 4.33 | 426 | 532 | 1065 | 2129 |
Annual | 4.40 | 5059 | 6324 | 12,647 | 25,291 |
System Size | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
4 kW | 5 kW | 10 kW | 20 kW | |
Initial cost S$ * | 8000.00 | 10,000.00 | 19,500.00 | 38,000.00 |
Approximate area | 28 m2 | 30 m2 | 60 m2 | 120 m2 |
Yearly maintenance cost S$ (1% of initial cost) | 80 | 100 | 195 | 380 |
Annual electricity generation (kWh)-Refer Table 5 | 5059 | 6324 | 12,647 | 25,291 |
Annual electricity requirement (kWh) | 15,768 | 15,768 | 15,768 | 15,768 |
1 Additional electricity requirement (kWh) | 10,709 | 9444 | 3121 | N/A |
2 Excess electricity sold back to the grid (kWh) | N/A | N/A | N/A | 9523 |
3 Additional cost of electricity from the grid (S$) | 2724.37 | 2402.55 | 793.98 | N/A |
4 Cost savings (S$) | 1287.01 | 1608.83 | 3217.40 | 5108.90 |
5 Net savings | (1517.36) | (893.73) | 2228.41 | 6054.03 |
6 Payback period (years) | 6.22 | 6.22 | 6.06 | 7.44 |
7 Discounted payback period (years) | 7 | 7 | 7 | 9 |
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Kuang, W.Y.; Illankoon, C.; Vithanage, S.C. Grid-Connected Solar Photovoltaic (PV) System for Covered Linkways. Buildings 2022, 12, 2131. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12122131
Kuang WY, Illankoon C, Vithanage SC. Grid-Connected Solar Photovoltaic (PV) System for Covered Linkways. Buildings. 2022; 12(12):2131. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12122131
Chicago/Turabian StyleKuang, Wendy Yiwen, Chethana Illankoon, and Sadith Chinthaka Vithanage. 2022. "Grid-Connected Solar Photovoltaic (PV) System for Covered Linkways" Buildings 12, no. 12: 2131. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12122131