Next Article in Journal
A Review on the Corrosion and Fatigue Failure of Gas Turbines
Next Article in Special Issue
Boosting Electrocatalytic Reduction of Nitrate to Ammonia over Co3O4 Nanosheets with Oxygen Vacancies
Previous Article in Journal
The Parameter Identification of Physical-Based Constitutive Model by Inverse Analysis Method for Application in Near-Net Shape Forging of Aluminum Wheels
Previous Article in Special Issue
Research on the Selective Electrocatalytic Reduction of SO2 to Recover S0 by Pb Electrode
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Metals
Volume 13
Issue 4
10.3390/met13040703
metals-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Editorial

Brief Introduction on Manufacturing and Characterization of Metallic Electrode and Corresponding Modified Materials

by
Que Huang
1,2,3,
Silong Wang
2,3,
Yanjun Chen
3,
Changcheng Liu
2,3,* and
Qiyue Li
1,*
1
School of Resources and Safety Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410010, China
2
School of Environment and Safety Engineering, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China
3
Institute of Advanced Energy Materials and Systems, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Metals 2023, 13(4), 703; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13040703
Submission received: 12 February 2023 / Revised: 28 February 2023 / Accepted: 15 March 2023 / Published: 3 April 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Manufacturing and Characterization of Metallic Electrode Materials)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
As an important part in new energy storage devices, electrodes containing metals or their corresponding derivatives are widely used due to the diversity of material types, existing forms and assembly methods. In order to obtain novel energy storage components with superior performance, new technologies and studies on the improvement of electrode materials are emerging in recent years. This editorial paper aims to summarize the classical and latest research highlights on manufacturing, characterization and modification of metallic electrodes, especially new materials.

1. Introduction

The energy storage devices with metal electrode materials and relating techniques have been greatly developed in recent years [1], especially based on the metal batteries including lithium (Li) [2] /sodium (Na) [3] /potassium (K) [4] /zinc (Zn) [5] /aluminum (Al) [6] /magnesium (Mg) [7] /calcium (Ca) [8] cells, metal/air batteries, secondary batteries, solar energy storage and catalytic hydrogen production, which have played significant roles in a wide range of application scenarios. However, with the increasingly prominent global energy problems, the demand for the development of new energy storage devices and technologies might continue to increase.
At present, there are still some defects in metallic electrode materials, especially in large-scale manufacturing. In order to meet the requirements of energy storage, many scholars have explored the new high-performance metal electrode material system, and some improved preparation ways have been put forward, which provided a basis for developing the large-scale production process for the next generation of chemical energy storage devices. In addition, advanced characterization methods were constantly emerging, which offered basic support for regulating the structure and properties of metallic electrode materials.
In this paper, pure/abnormal metal and metallic compound electrodes would be emphasized, respectively.

2. Metal Electrode

In recent decades, lithium-based batteries have dominated the development of high-performance batteries because of the low density, high voltage and excellent electrochemical equivalent to 3860 mA·h/g for lithium metal among various negative electrode materials [9]. Lithium metal cells are difficult to commercialize even nowadays, which is mainly due to the problems of poor cycle stability and low coulombic efficiency (CE) of lithium anode during charging and discharging processes. On the one hand, the root cause of the above defects is that there is a serious side reaction between lithium anode and electrolyte, and another reason is the obvious volume change during the cycling of lithium anode [10]. In unit time, the flux of metal ion diffusion to different positions of the electrode would change while the current density and deposition speed at various positions on the surface of the metal electrode also differ. When the current density is high, the deposition speed of metal electrode is fast, and the tip growth occurs.
The unwanted deposition of lithium dendrites (as shown in Figure 1) and Li metal on foil electrode is the main cause of damage to the performance of lithium metal cells. The replacement and alloying reactions between special ionic liquid and lithium foil were applied to construct Li alloy anode to solve the use problems caused by lithium dendrite growth inside lithium metal batteries [11]. Coralloid carbon fiber (CFs) was prepared by electroplating silver (Ag) particles on the surface of CFs in a published work [12]; then, the composite lithium metal anode CF/Ag-Li could be obtained by siphoning molten lithium, and the synthesized electrode could adjust the nucleation and growth of lithium during lithium plating as well as reduce the deposition degree of lithium during the reactions.
The working principle of Na metal batteries is similar to that of Li ones. With high specific capacity of 1166 mA·h/g and low redox potential of −2.71 V, normal hydrogen electrode (NHE), as well as abundant sodium element and much lower price than that of lithium, sodium-ion battery (SIB) is expected to replace lithium-ion battery (LIB) as the most promising next-generation energy storage equipment. On the contrary, the growth of sodium dendrites in Na metal cells is always out of control, and the unstable solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer would also limit the development of Na-relating cells [13].
Compared with lithium dendrites, there are more serious disadvantages to those of sodium and SEI layer inside Na metal cells. Currently, the new combination of metallic salt and solvent to obtain advanced electrolyte has become the research focus to realize the stable cycle of sodium metal battery [14]. By studying new electrolytes [15] or changing the concentration of solute [16], the cyclic performance of sodium metal battery could be enhanced and stabilized.
The working principle of potassium battery is similar to that of lithium and sodium cells. K metallic electrode has high theoretical specific capacity and extremely low electrode potential, but it still faces many problems when modified and used in potassium-ion batteries (PIBs). Potassium has high reactivity, which requests super-clean assembly environment for batteries containing it [17]. At the same time, during the cycling, the side reactions on the interface between negative electrode and electrolyte are usually violent, which leads to the loss of active substances. In addition, the formation of potassium dendrites causes the premature failure of the battery [18]. The interfacial side reactions caused by solvent and active oxygen can be alleviated by in situ synthesis of film on the surface of metal potassium [19]. It is also possible to synthesize an alloy SEI layer such as K-Hg to adjust the interface reactions [20].
Although zinc and aluminum are bivalent and trivalent, respectively, their metal cells are facing problems and challenges similar to those of lithium, sodium and potassium batteries, and the solutions are basically referable [21,22].
Magnesium–sulfur (Mg-S) battery is a strong competitor of lithium–sulfur (Li-S) one, and many scholars have studied their performance and stability [23]. The interfacial reactions between electrode and electrolyte will cause serious capacity decline, and adding additives can improve the performance and compatibility of cathode materials [24]. Besides electrolyte, designing suitable sulfur carrier to avoid the electrical insulation performance of sulfur is another obstacle for Mg-S battery [25].
Perovskite solar cell is a new generation in photovoltaic cells, and its performance is mainly related to the distribution of CaTiO3 compounds existing in perovskite films [26]. Controlling the distribution of perovskite thin films by depositing perovskite via various physical and chemical methods is the focus of research in recent years [27,28].
To sum up, some physical and chemical parameters of several pure metal electrodes are listed in Table 1.

3. Abnormal Metal Electrode

3.1. Foamed Metal Battery

Metal foam material has high porosity and large specific surface area, so it can be filled with more active substances, which increases the capacity of the battery and greatly reduces the real current density of the electrode. Therefore, it is an ideal material for manufacturing electrodes of various batteries such as storage batteries/accumulators, air batteries, fuel cells and solar cells, and it provides the possibility for the development of lightweight batteries with low internal friction, long service life and high specific energy [29]. Nowadays, the commonly used metal foam electrodes mainly include foamed nickel (Ni) [30], foamed lead (Pb) [31], and foamed zinc (Zn) [32].
The performance of metal foam electrode mainly depends on the amount of active substances it carries [33], which depends on the porosity of the foamed metal electrode [34]. In the recent years, a lot of methods have been proposed to produce metal foam with high porosity which could reach 70~90% after adding porosity agent by using loose powder sintering method [35]. The porosity of foamed metal electrode material produced by electrodeposition could increase to be 80~99%, the pore structure was evenly distributed, and the opening rate was high [36].
Metal foam electrode is of great significance for the development of batteries. Nevertheless, a large amount of research on metal foam electrodes is in the experimental stage, which is still far from large-scale application.

3.2. Liquid Metal Battery

Typical liquid metal battery includes two liquid metal electrodes and molten salt electrolyte, while the three types of liquid substances are naturally divided into three layers because of the density difference and incompatibility from each other [37], as illustrated in Figure 2.
Because of its unique structure and electrical conductivity, liquid metal electrode has the following advantages in the application of energy storage battery:
(1) During the charging and discharging process, liquid metal electrode can effectively avoid dendrite growth, phase transition and grain size change, thus the battery has a long energy storage life [37].
(2) Liquid metal electrode has good conductivity and rapid electrode interface dynamic response, which can meet the needs for high-power application fields [38].
(3) The structure of liquid electrode is simple, and the electrode interface is easy to construct; therefore, the period of time for battery assembly process is short, so the manufacturing cost is also relatively low [39].
Liquid metal batteries mainly include lithium-based battery [40], sodium-based battery [41], zinc-based battery [42] and aluminum-based batteries [43], magnesium-based battery [44], and calcium-based battery [45], the equilibrium voltage of which mainly depends on the activity difference of active components in metal electrodes A and B [46], as presented in Figure 2. The negative electrode is generally the liquid metal mentioned above such as Li, Na, Zn, Al, Mg, and Ca. Therefore, selecting appropriate metal as the positive electrode is a main mean to guarantee the performance of liquid metal batteries. Besides considering the balance voltage between the two electrodes, the cost should also be taken into account. Generally, Sb, Bi, Sn or Pb could be chosen as the positive electrode, and their applicability is very strong [47]. In addition, the electrodes used in liquid metal batteries are not strictly limited to pure metals; sometimes, alloy electrodes are applied, and the goal of electrode alloying is to reduce the melting point of the electrodes without obviously decreasing the voltage or increasing the material cost [48]. The elements added during alloying should not have negative effects on electrodes, electrolyte, insulators, current collectors and other assembly materials, and the alloyed electrodes should still meet the requirements of maintaining the density of three liquid layers [49].

4. Metallic Compound Electrode Materials

Layered metallic oxides, metallic nitrides and metal sulfides could be applied as metal-derived electrode materials whose energy storage principle is mainly Faradaic capacitance generated by highly reversible redox reactions or chemical adsorption/desorption, which have hence gained significant concerns among various new energy storage materials.

4.1. Metallic Oxide Electrode Materials

Metallic oxides have attracted much attention because of their high energy density, and their theoretical specific capacitance can reach 10–100 times that of carbon materials, and their stability is great [50]. The commonly used metallic oxide electrode materials include ruthenium oxide (RuO2) [51], manganese oxide (MnO2) [52], cobalt oxide (Co3O4) [53] and nickel oxide (NiO) [54]. Furthermore, the conductivity of bimetallic oxide electrode materials is several orders of magnitude higher than that of monometallic oxides, which can promote the transfer of electrons and ions [55] to achieve higher output power density. Moreover, multi-metallic oxides are more diversified than bimetallic oxides, which can effectively reduce the band gap width of electrode materials and improve the electric conductivity [56], and the diversity of components can regulate the electrochemical activity and stability of cells [57]. To realize the synergistic effect in components and obtain excellent comprehensive energy storage performance, the development of multi-metallic and bimetallic oxides is the current research hotspot [58]. Taking ZnMn2O4-Li battery as an example, the charging and discharging processes of batteries with typical metallic oxide electrodes is indicated in Figure 3.

4.2. Metallic Nitride Electrode Materials

The metallic nitrides produced from urea or ammonia gas have high state density because of the metal lattice deformation, which contributes to the excellent electrical conductivity. The energy storage performance can be effectively improved by transforming metallic oxides into highly conductive metallic nitrides via nitriding treatment under high temperature. At present, the commonly used metallic nitride electrode materials are titanium nitride (TiN) [59] and multilayered porous aluminium nitride (AlN) [60].

4.3. Metallic Sulfide Electrode Materials

Compared to oxygen atoms in metallic oxides, sulfur atoms in transition metallic sulfides have stronger electronegativity, and there are more abundant anions when the reversible redox reactions are active, so metallic sulfides could be ideal electrode materials due to their large theoretical capacity and long cycle life. Metallic sulfides generally exist in the form of nano-arrays, such as porous cobalt sulfide nano-sheet arrays [61]. Similar to metallic oxides, bimetallic sulfide electrode materials have superior properties than monometallic ones [62]. Regardless of whether the bimetallic sulfides were obtained from the combination with carbon nanomaterials or simple and easy-to-operate means such as hydrothermal method, they have been proved to be superior electrode materials after experiments [63,64,65,66,67,68].

5. Conclusions

Electrode materials containing metals and metallic derivatives with huge reserves showing redox activity, which is precisely the reason why metallic electrode materials have been the research focus in the field of energy storage devices since the last century. The constantly emerging innovative and efficient preparation and modification methods can greatly broaden the application scenarios and development prospects of new energy storage devices in the future. This paper mainly introduces various elemental metal electrode materials, those existing in abnormal conditions, metallic oxides, nitrides as well as sulfides, which provides some basis for valuable aspects to be investigated.
Manufacturing as well as characterization of metallic electrode materials are worthy and important themes in various fields in the past, present, and future. This Special Issue aims to promote further research activities in power supply/energy storage relevant fields, and accelerate the industrialization of high-performance metallic electrode materials. We sincerely invite high-quality contributions including but not limited to original research articles/reviews/case reports/communications/perspectives/viewpoints that present innovative and significant findings and experiences on this topic.

Author Contributions

Investigation, Q.H.; Writing—original draft preparation, Q.H.; Methodology, S.W.; Conceptualization, Y.C.; Writing—review and editing, C.L.; Project administration, Q.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study has been sponsored by National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 12202410 and No. 51906238), Research Project Supported by Shanxi Scholarship Council of China (No. 2022-139), Natural Science Foundation of Shanxi Province (No. 20210302123017) and Fund Program for the Scientific Activities of Selected Returned Overseas Professionals in Shanxi Province (No. 20220012). Also, this work was supported by Changsha Municipal Natural Science Foundation (No. kq2208277). The authors gratefully acknowledge this support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Luis, A.; Frank, W.; de León Carlos, P. 3D Porous Metal Electrodes: Fabrication, Characterisation and Use. Curr. Opin. Electrochem. 2019, 16, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Chen, X.; Zhao, B.; Chong, Y.; Zhang, Q. Review on Li Deposition in Working Batteries: From Nucleation to Early Growth. Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, 2004128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Deepak, K.; Kuhar, R.S.; Dinesh, S.K. Progress and prospects of sodium-sulfur batteries: A Review. Solid State Ion. 2017, 312, 8–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. James, P.; Divya, S.; Damian, G.; Neeraj, S. An Initial Review of the Status of Electrode Materials for Potassium-Ion Batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 2017, 7, 1602911. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Shi, Y.; Chen, Y.; Shi, L.; Wang, K.; Wang, B.; Li, L.; Ma, Y.; Li, Y.; Sun, Z.; Wajid, A.; et al. An Overview and Future Perspectives of Rechargeable Zinc Batteries. Small 2020, 16, 2000730. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Yang, H.; Li, H.; Li, J.; Sun, Z.; He, K.; Cheng, H.; Li, F. The Rechargeable Aluminum Battery: Opportunities and Challenges. Angew. Chem. 2019, 131, 11978–11996. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Rana, M.; Fuminori, M. Magnesium batteries: Current state of the art, issues and future perspectives. Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2014, 5, 1291–1311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Elena Arroyo-de Dompablo, M.; Ponrouch, A.; Johansson, P.; Rosa Palacin, M. Achievements, Challenges, and Prospects of Calcium Batteries. Chem. Rev. 2019, 120, 6331–6357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Kuang, Y.; Chen, C.; Dylan, K.; Hu, L. Thick Electrode Batteries: Principles, Opportunities, and Challenges. Adv. Energy Mater. 2019, 9, 1901457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Tianpin, J.W.; Khalil, A. State-of-the-art characterization techniques for advanced lithium-ion batteries. Nat. Energy 2017, 2, 17011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Lu, Z.; Li, W.; Long, Y.; Liang, J.; Liang, Q.; Wu, S.; Tao, Y.; Weng, Z.; Lv, W.; Yang, Q. Constructing a High-Strength Solid Electrolyte Layer by In Vivo Alloying with Aluminum for an Ultrahigh-Rate Lithium Metal Anode. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 30, 1907343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Zhang, R.; Chen, X.; Shen, X.; Zhang, X.; Chen, X.; Cheng, X.; Chong, Y.; Zhao, C.; Zhang, Q. Coralloid Carbon Fiber-Based Composite Lithium Anode for Robust Lithium Metal Batteries. Joule 2018, 2, 764–777. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  13. Zhu, M.; Wang, G.; Liu, X.; Guo, B.; Xu, G.; Huang, Z.; Wu, M.; Liu, H.; Dou, S.; Wu, C. Dendrite-Free Sodium Metal Anodes Enabled by a Sodium Benzenedithiolate-Rich Protection Layer. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2020, 59, 1916716. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Zhi, S.; Sun, J.; Sun, Y.; Cui, Y. A Highly Reversible Room-Temperature Sodium Metal Anode. ACS Cent. Sci. 2015, 1, 449–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Lukas, S.; Ilie, H.; Martin, W.; Stefan, F. An Electrolyte for Reversible Cycling of Na Metal and Na Intercalation Compounds. ChemSusChem 2016, 10, 1601222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Andrew, B.; Faezeh, M.; Ruhamah, Y.; Douglas, M.; Maria, F.; Patrick, H. Extensive Sodium Metal Plating and Stripping in a Highly Concentrated Inorganic-Organic Ionic Liquid Electrolyte through Surface Pretreatment. ChemElectroChem 2017, 4, 1600784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Wang, H.; Hu, J.; Dong, J.; Chun, L.K.; Qin, L.; Lei, Y.; Li, B.; Zhai, D.; Wu, Y.; Kang, F. Artificial Solid-Electrolyte Interphase Enabled High-Capacity and Stable Cycling Potassium Metal Batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 2019, 9, 1902697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Liu, C.; Jiang, X.; Huang, Q.; Chen, Y.; Guo, L. Simultaneous defect regulation by p-n type co-substitution in a Na3V2(PO4)3/C cathode for high performance sodium ion batteries. Dalton Trans. 2022, 51, 10943–10955. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Xiao, N.; Zheng, J.; Gerald, G.; Luke, S.; Wu, Y. Anchoring an Artificial Protective Layer to Stabilize Potassium Metal Anode in Rechargeable K-O2 Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 16571–16577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Yang, Q.; Ding, Y.; He, G. An Amalgam Route to Stabilize Potassium Metal Anodes over Wide Temperature Range. Chem. Commun. 2020, 56, 3512–3515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Shougo, H.; Seok, L.; Jang, L.; Kensuke, T.; Yi, C. Avoiding Short Circuits From Zinc Metal Dendrites in Anode by Backside-Plating Configuration. Nat. Commun. 2016, 7, 11801. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  22. Muñoz-Torrero, D.; Leung, P.; García-Quismondo, E.; Ventosa, E.; Anderson, M.; Palma, J.; Marcilla, R. Investigation of different anode materials for aluminium rechargeable batteries. J. Power Sources 2018, 374, 77–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Gao, T.; Hou, S.; Huynh, K.; Wang, F.; Nico, E.; Fan, X.; Fudong, H.; Luo, C.; Mao, M.; Li, X.; et al. Existence of Solid Electrolyte Interphase in Mg Batteries: Mg/S Chemistry as an Example. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2018, 10, 14767–14776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Vinayan, B.P.; Zhao-Karger, Z.; Diemant, T.; Chakravadhanula, V.S.K.; Schwarzburger, N.I.; Cambaz, M.A.; Behm, R.J.; Kübel, C.; Fichtner, M. Performance study of magnesium–sulfur battery using a graphene based sulfur composite cathode electrode and a non-nucleophilic Mg electrolyte. Nanoscale 2015, 8, 3269–3306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  25. Yu, X.; Arumugam, M. Performance Enhancement and Mechanistic Studies of Magnesium-Sulfur (Mg-S) Cells with an Advanced Cathode Structure. ACS Energy Lett. 2016, 1, 431–437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Kim, H.S.; Lee, C.R.; Im, J.H.; Lee, K.B.; Moehl, T.; Marchioro, A.; Moon, S.J.; Humphry-Baker, R.; Yum, J.H.; Moser, J.E.; et al. Lead Iodide Perovskite Sensitized All-Solid-State Submicron Thin Film Mesoscopic Solar Cell with Efficiency Exceeding 9%. Sci. Rep. 2012, 2, 591. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  27. Michael, L.; Joël, T.; Tsutomu, M.; Takurou, M.; Jeong-Hyeok, I. Efficient Hybrid Solar Cells Based on Meso-Superstructured Organometal Halide Perovskites. Science 2012, 338, 643–647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  28. Nam, J.; Jun, N.; Young, K.; Woon, Y.; Seungchan, R.; Hyuk, I.S. Solvent engineering for high-performance inorganic-organic hybrid perovskite solar cell. Nat. Mater. 2014, 13, 897–903. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Gao, F.; Xu, B.; Wang, Q.; Cai, F.; He, S.; Zhang, M.; Wang, Q. Potentiostatic deposition of CoNi2S4 nanosheet arrays on nickel foam: Effect of depostion time on the morphology and pseudocapacitive performance. J. Mater. Sci. 2016, 51, 10641–10651. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Saeed, S.; Rahim, M.; Elham, A. One-step fabrication of electrochemically reduced graphene oxide/nickel oxide composite for binder-free supercapacitors. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2016, 41, 17496–17505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  31. Rizwan, A.; Jang-Hoon, H.; In-Hyuck, S. Enhancement of the compressive strength of highly porous Al2O3 foam through crack healing and improvement of the surface condition by dip-coating. Ceram. Int. 2014, 40, 3679–3685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Tian, Q.; Guo, X.; Song, Y.; Duan, L. ElectroDeposition for Foamed Zinc Material from Zinc Sulfate Solution. Mater. Sci. Forum 2007, 561, 1669–1672. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Wang, M.; Wang, Y.; Dou, H.; Wei, G.; Wang, X. Enhanced rate capability of nanostructured three-dimensional graphene/Ni3S2 composite for supercapacitor electrode. Ceram. Int. 2016, 42, 9858–9865. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Karthikeyan, R.; Navanietha, R.; Ammaiyappan, S.; Jonathan, W.; Leung, L.P.; Michael; K.H.; Berchmans, S. Effect of composites based Nickel foam anode in microbial fuel cell using Acetobacter aceti and Gluconoabater roesus as a biocatalysts. Bioresour. Technol. 2016, 217, 113–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Prasun, K.; Chandrasekhar, K.; Archana, K.; Ezhaveni, S.; Soo, K.B. Electro-Fermentation in Aid of Bioenergy and Biopolymers. Energies 2018, 11, 343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  36. Gerard, D.; Bennetto; Jeremy, M.; Sibel, R.; John, S.; Christopher, T. Electron-transfer coupling in microbial fuel cells performance of fuel cells containing selected microorganism-mediator-substrate combinations. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. Biotechnol. 2008, 34, 13–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Li, P.; Liu, Z.; He, D.; Han, K.; Zhao, H.; Qu, X. High Performance Antimony-Bismuth-Tin Positive Electrode for Liquid Metal Battery. Chem. Mater. 2018, 30, 8739–8746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Douglas, K.; Tom, W. Fluid Mechanics of Liquid Metal Batteries. Appl. Mech. Rev. 2017, 70, 31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Nore, H.W.; Cappanera, C.; Jean-Luc, L.G. Tayler instability in liquid metal colums and liquid metal batteries. J. Fluid Mech. 2015, 771, 79–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  40. Ning, X.; Satyajit, P.; Brice, C.; Huayi; Paul, B.; Donald, S. Self-healing Li-Bi Liquid Metal Battery for Grid-scale energy Storage. J. Power Sources 2014, 275, 370–376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  41. Li, H.; Yin, H.; Wang, K.; Cheng, S.; Jiang, K.; Donald, S. Liquid Metal Electrodes for Energy Storage Batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 2016, 6, 239–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Stephen, H.N.M.; James, L.; Cameron, L.; Susan, O.; Kunlei, L. Cathode candidates for zinc-based thermal-electrochemical energy storage. Int. J. Energy Res. 2015, 40, 393–399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Viktor, N.; Joze, M.; Marko, H.; Aljana, P.; Miran, G. Preparation and Electrochemical Characterization of Aluminium Liquid Battery Cells with Two Different Electrolytes (NaCl-BaCl2-AlF3-NaF and LiF-AlF3-BaF2). Acta Chim. Slov. 2015, 62, 796–804. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. David, B.; Hojong, K.; Aislinn, S.; Donald, S. Magnesium-Antimony Liquid Metal Battery for Stationary Energy Storage. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012, 134, 1895–1897. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Hojong, K.; Dane, B.; Takanari, O.; Donald, S. Calcium–bismuth electrodes for large-scale energy storage (liquid metal batteries). J. Power Sources 2013, 241, 239–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Li, Y.; Lu, Y.; Zhao, C.; Hu, Y.; Magda, T.; Li, H.; Huang, X.; Chen, L. Recent advances of electrode materials for low-cost sodium-ion batteries towards practical application for grid energy storage. Energy Storage Mater. 2017, 7, 130–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Jocelyn, N.; Sophie, P.; Hojong, K.; Brian, S.; Donald, S. Thermodynamic properties of calcium–magnesium alloys determined by emf measurements. Electrochim. Acta 2013, 91, 293–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Margaret, K.; Jocelyn, N.; Donald, S. Electrochemical Determination of the Thermodynamic Properties of Lithium-Antimony Alloys. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2015, 162, A421–A425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Sun, Y.; Tang, J.; Zhang, K.; Yuan, J.; Li, J.; Zhu, D.; Kiyoshi, O.; Qin, L. Comparison of Reduction Products from Graphite Oxide with that from Graphene Oxide for Anode Application in Lithium-ion Batteries and Sodium-ion Batteries. Nanoscale 2017, 9, 2585–2595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Ramzi, N.; Guofeng, Z.; Jiming, S. Facile and low-cost synthesis of cobalt-doped MnO2 decorated with graphene oxide for high performance 2.3 V aqueous asymmetric supercapacitors. Electrochim. Acta 2020, 345, 136198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Manuraj, M.; Jomiya, C.; Narayanan, U.; Raghavan, R. Heterostructured MoS2-RuO2 nanocomposite: A promising electrode material for supercapacitors. J. Alloy. Compd. 2020, 836, 155420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Balakrishnan, S.; Ramachandran; Ravi; Vaishnavi, G.; Ramesh, G.; Sakunthala. MnFe₂O₄ Nanoparticles as an Efficient Electrode for Energy Storage Applications. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2020, 20, 96–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Iftikhar, H.; Saad, M.; Awais, A.; Nadir, A.; Wail, A.Z. Uniform growth of Zn-Mn-Co ternary oxide nanoneedles for high-performance energy-storage applications. J. Electroanal. Chem. 2019, 835, 262–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Huang, M.L.; Gu, C.; Ge, X.; Wang, X.; Tu, J. NiO nanoflakes grown on porous graphene frameworks as advanced electrochemical pseudocapacitor materials. J. Power Sources 2014, 259, 98–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Sivalingam, R.; Karuppasamy; Arumugam, S.; Hyun-Seok, K.; Hemraj, Y.; Soo, K.H. Core shell nanostructured of Co3O4@RuO2 assembled on nitrogen-doped graphene sheets electrode for an efficient supercapacitor application. J. Alloys Compd. 2021, 877, 160297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Li, S.; Duan, Y.; Teng, Y.; Fan, N.; Huo, Y. MOF-derived tremelliform Co3O4/NiO/Mn2O3 with excellent capacitive performance. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2019, 478, 247–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Md, A.; Sangaraju, S. Sulfonated graphene oxide-decorated block copolymer as a proton-exchange membrane: Improving the ion selectivity for all-vanadium redox flow batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2018, 6, 17740–17750. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. So, K.; KapSeung, Y.; Bo-Hye, K. Enhanced electrical capacitance of heteroatom-decorated nanoporous carbon nanofiber composites containing graphene. Electrochim. Acta 2014, 137, 781–788. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Du, H.; Xie, Y.; Xia, C.; Wang, W.; Tian, F. Electrochemical capacitance of polypyrrole–titanium nitride and polypyrrole–titania nanotube hybrids. New J. Chem. 2014, 38, 1284–1293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Hao, S.; Zhang, L.; Wang, X.; Zhao, G.; Hou, P.; Xu, X. Design of Multilayered Porous Aluminum Nitride for Supercapacitor Applications. Energy Fuels 2021, 35, 12628–12636. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Han, X.; Tao, K.; Wang, D.; Han, L. Design of porous cobalt sulfide nanosheets array on Ni foam from zeolitic imidazolate frameworks as an advanced electrode for supercapacitors. Nanoscale 2017, 10, 2765–3741. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  62. Yi, T.; Chang, H.; Wei, T.; Qi, S.; Li, Y.; Zhu, Y. Approaching High-Performance Electrode Materials of ZnCo2S4 nanoparticle Wrapped carbon nanotubes for Supercapacitors. J. Mater. 2020, 7, 563–576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Liu, C.; Huang, Q.; Zheng, K.; Qin, J.; Zhou, D.; Wang, J. Impact of lithium salts on the combustion characteristics of electrolyte under diverse pressures. Energies 2020, 13, 5373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Qin, J.; Liu, C.; Huang, Q. Simulation on fire emergency evacuation in special subway station based on Pathfinder. Case Stud. Therm. Eng. 2020, 21, 100677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Liu, C.; Xu, D.; Weng, J.; Zhou, S.; Li, W.; Wan, Y.; Jiang, S.; Zhou, D.; Wang, J.; Huang, Q. Phase change materials application in battery thermal management system: A review. Materials 2020, 13, 4622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Xu, D.; Huang, G.; Guo, L.; Chen, Y.; Ding, C.; Liu, C. Enhancement of catalytic combustion and thermolysis for treating polyethylene plastic waste. Adv. Compos. Hybrid Mater. 2022, 5, 113–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Li, D.; Hu, J.; Wang, C.; Guo, L.; Zhou, J. Metal-organic framework-induced edge-riched growth of layered Bi2Se3 towards ultrafast Na-ion storage. J. Power Sources 2023, 555, 232387. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Xiao, T.; Li, J.; Zhuang, X.; Zhang, W.; Wang, S.; Chen, X.; Xiang, P.; Jiang, L.; Tan, X. Wide potential window and high specific capacitance triggered via rough NiCo2S4 nanorod arrays with open top for symmetric supercapacitors. Electrochim. Acta 2018, 269, 397–404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Metals 13 00703 g001 550
Figure 1. Formation processing of lithium dendrites in lithium metal batteries.
Figure 1. Formation processing of lithium dendrites in lithium metal batteries.
Metals 13 00703 g001
Metals 13 00703 g002 550
Figure 2. Charge and discharge processing of liquid metal battery.
Figure 2. Charge and discharge processing of liquid metal battery.
Metals 13 00703 g002
Metals 13 00703 g003 550
Figure 3. Charge and discharge processes of ZnMn2O4-Li battery with metallic oxide electrode.
Figure 3. Charge and discharge processes of ZnMn2O4-Li battery with metallic oxide electrode.
Metals 13 00703 g003
Table
Table 1. Some physical and chemical parameters of several pure metal electrodes [13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24].
Table 1. Some physical and chemical parameters of several pure metal electrodes [13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24].
MetalRedox Potential (V vs. NHE)Mass Specific Capacity (mA·h/g)Capacity Density (mA·h/cm3)Melting Point (°C)Crustal Abundance (ppm)
Li−3.0453860206110818
Na−2.7141166112897.7222,700
K−2.92868559163.6521,000
Mg−2.3722204383564827,640
Ca−2.8681337207284246,660
Zn−0.762819585141970
Al−1.6622979804366083,000
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Huang, Q.; Wang, S.; Chen, Y.; Liu, C.; Li, Q. Brief Introduction on Manufacturing and Characterization of Metallic Electrode and Corresponding Modified Materials. Metals 2023, 13, 703. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13040703

AMA Style

Huang Q, Wang S, Chen Y, Liu C, Li Q. Brief Introduction on Manufacturing and Characterization of Metallic Electrode and Corresponding Modified Materials. Metals. 2023; 13(4):703. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13040703

Chicago/Turabian Style

Huang, Que, Silong Wang, Yanjun Chen, Changcheng Liu, and Qiyue Li. 2023. "Brief Introduction on Manufacturing and Characterization of Metallic Electrode and Corresponding Modified Materials" Metals 13, no. 4: 703. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13040703

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop