Sustainable Recovery of Secondary and Critical Raw Materials from Classified Mining Residues Using Mycorrhizal-Assisted Phytoextraction
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- New sensitive technologies (such as remote sensing technologies) for mapping and classification of mining wastes containing minerals and metals;
- New solutions for chemical, physical and morphological characterization;
- An eco-innovative methodology for converting mining waste into resource: mycorrhizal-assisted phytoextraction (MAP) of mining wastes, and the consequent accumulation of secondary and critical raw materials (SRMs and CRMs, respectively) in biomass tissues;
- Recovery of SRMs and CRMs from biomass through hydrometallurgy and/or electrochemical methods. The leaching extraction is selective and allows the recovery of all the contained elements because specific reagents are used for each of them, applying innovative processes (e.g., thiourea process, thiosulfate process, etc.). The metals are purified to a high degree of purity by electrochemical methods.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Fe and Mn Mine Wastes
2.2. The Joda West Iron and Manganese Mine Geodatabase
2.3. MAP Test at TRL-2 Scale
2.3.1. Plant Material and AM Fungal Strain
2.3.2. TRL-2 Experimental Setup
- MA1–4+. Four pots filled with CS and VA in a 1:1 (v/v) ratio, completing to 500 mL and 125 mL granular PS. Considering the CS only, 300–500 ppm ZnSO4 were added. At least three sunflower seeds were sown and inoculated with a piece of 4-month old monoxenic culture (containing approximately 300 spores, mycelia and colonized roots).
- MA1–4−. Four pots filled with mixed CS and VA in a 1:1 (v/v) ratio, completing to 500 mL and 125 mL PS. Considering the CS only, 300–500 ppm ZnSO4 were added. At least three sunflower seeds were sown in each pot.
- B1–4+. Four pots filled with 500 mL FCT and 125 mL PS. At least three sunflower seeds were sown and inoculated with a piece of 4-month old monoxenic culture (containing approximately 300 spores, mycelia and colonized roots).
- B1–4−. Four pots filled with 500 mL FCT and 125 mL PS. At least three sunflower seeds were planted in each pot.
2.3.3. Harvest and Sample Analyses
2.3.4. TXRF Analysis
2.4. Bioextracting Potential (BP) in VDM
2.5. Calculations and Statistical Analyses
2.5.1. Bioconcentration Coefficients and Translocation Factor
- Cp(S,R): concentration of element in the aerial (shoots, S) or radicular (roots, R) plant tissue (ppm)
- Csoil: concentration of element in soil (ppm)
- Cp(S): concentration of element in the aerial plant tissue (shoots; ppm)
- Cp(R): concentration of element in the radicular plant tissue (roots; ppm)
2.5.2. Bioextracting Potential (BP)
- Wtot(S,R): Total weight (g) of aerial (shoots, S) and radical (roots, R) plant tissue.
- Cp(S,R): concentration (ppm) of element in the aerial (shoots, S) or radicular (roots, R) plant tissue.
3. Results
MAP Test at TRL-2 Scale
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Treatment | N | Mn (%) | P (ppm) | As (ppm) | Ga (ppm) | Zn (ppm) | Ti (%) | Cr (ppm) | Ni (ppm) | Cu (ppm) | Rb (ppm) | Fe (%) | Sr (ppm) | Al (%) | Ba (%) | K (%) | S (ppm) | Ca (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B− | 4 | 0.068 (0.011) | 2275 (170.8) | 7.050 (2.106) | 5.125 (0.378) | 213.8 (7.411) | 0.135 (0.006) | 87.25 (10.72) | 43.50 (3.317) | 110.5 (3.697) | 206.8 (48.03) | 1.475 (0.096) | 1081 (114.3) | 1.525 (0.250) | 0.043 (0.006) | 1.350 (0.100) | 3450 (264.6) | 5.500 (0.316) |
B+ | 4 | 0.062 (0.002) | 2125 (50.00) | 8.775 (0.818) | 5.000 (0.683) | 210.8 (18.79) | 0.128 (0.005) | 86.50 (18.23) | 42.25 (1.500) | 108.0 (5.354) | 211.5 (28.21) | 1.425 (0.050) | 1100 (115.5) | 1.363 (0.048) | 0.043 (0.004) | 1.325 (0.096) | 3525 (221.7) | 5.325 (0.126) |
Sample Type | Biomass (g/sp) | M+ | M− |
---|---|---|---|
Contaminated | Shoots | 0.24 a (0.03) | 0.24 a (0.02) |
Roots | 0.02 b (0.01) | 0.02 b (0.004) | |
Blank | Shoots | 0.35 c (0.01) | 0.23 a (0.02) |
Roots | 0.11 d (0.001) | 0.02 b (0.002) |
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Sample Type | Sample ID | N | Ga (ppm) | P (ppm) | Ti (ppm) | Sr (ppm) | Ba (ppm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Contaminated | MA− | 4 | 12.88 (0.572) | 731 (32.8) | 2575 (94.65) | 110 (3.47) | 2550 (86.6) |
MA+ | 4 | 20.13 (1.994) | 711 (15.14) | 2675 (25) | 112(4.94) | 2600 (40.8) | |
Cp(S)+ | 2 | 31.50 (9.596) | 3803 (209.1) | 9,5 (0.5) | 410 (172) | 7.85 (0.15) | |
Cp(S)− | 2 | 13.70 (1.616) | 2878 (158.6) | 16 (1) | 254 (9.60) | 11.5 (0.5) | |
Cp(R)+ | 2 | 25.55 (3.889) | 1228 (35.86) | 446 (24.24) | 79(4.04) | 98.5 (1.51) | |
Cp(R)− | 2 | 22.00 (1.010) | 880 (27.27) | 947.5 (53) | 138 (7.07) | 163.5 (6.5) | |
Blank | B+ | 4 | 5.00 (0.34) | 2125 (25.00) | 1275 (25) | 1100 (57.7) | 431.25 (21.29) |
Cp(S)+ | 2 | 3.02 (0.75) | 3583 (200.1) | 9 (3) | 229 (1.01) | 8.0 (1.0) | |
Cp(R)+ | 2 | 3.00 (0.10) | 1412 (39.39) | 509 (11.11) | 106 (5.56) | 28.5 (1.51) |
Sample Type | Sample ID | N | Mn (%) | Fe (%) | As (ppm) | Zn (ppm) | Cr (ppm) | Ni (ppm) | Cu (ppm) | Rb (ppm) | Al (ppm) | K (%) | S (ppm) | Ca (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Contaminated | MA− | 4 | 4.93 (0.13) | 11.2 (0.26) | 12.5 (0.59) | 1500 (108) | 110 (7.67) | 67.0 (2.24) | 60.3 (1.65) | 78.3 (1.49) | 62,500 (1040.8) | 2.30 (0.04) | 1195 (113.1 | 1.12 (0.10) |
MA+ | 4 | 5.55 (0.03) | 12.2 (0.06) | 23.2 (1.24) | 1475 (25.0) | 113.3 (2.93) | 72.3 (1.49) | 64.5 (2.53) | 80.5 (1.76) | 64,750 (250) | 2.20 (0.04) | 1125 (125) | 1.05 (0.04) | |
Cp(S)+ | 2 | 0.052 (0.003) | 0.03 (0.001) | 4.05 (0.05) | 1328 (37.9) | 2.80 (0.20) | 1.80 (0.10) | 16.5 (0.51) | 116 (4.04) | 0.95 (0.05) | 7.70 (0.40) | 5945 (162.1) | 2.25 (0.15) | |
Cp(S)− | 2 | 0.05 (0.003) | 0.03 (0.002) | 1.50 (0.10) | 1410 (39.4) | 0.65 (0.05) | 1.00 (0.10) | 14.0 (1.01) | 102 (2.53) | 0.93 (0.07) | 7.10 (0.20) | 6189 (162.1) | 2.06 (0.06) | |
Cp(R)+ | 2 | 0.455 (0.024) | 1.19 (0.06) | 6.50 (0.505) | 1162 (32.3) | 29.5 (1.52) | 38.0 (2.02) | 17.5 (0.51) | 12.5 (0.51) | 5550 (2272.4) | 4.65 (0.15) | 16,885 (672.3) | 0.99 (0.02) | |
Cp(R)− | 2 | 0.74 (0.04) | 2.13 (0.13) | 6.50 (0.505) | 1717 (92.4) | 10.00 (1.01) | 14.0 (10.0) | 36.0 (2.02) | 109 (3.54) | 21,375 (419.2) | 5.20 (0.15) | 13,772 (307.6) | 2.46 (0.08) | |
Blank | B+ | 4 | 0.06 (0.001) | 1.43 (0.03) | 8.78 (0.41) | 210.8 (9.4) | 86.50 (9.1) | 42.3 (0.75) | 108 (2.68) | 212 (14.1) | 13,625 (239.3) | 1.33 (0.05) | 3525 (110.9) | 5.33 (0.06) |
Cp(S)+ | 2 | 0.007 (0.0006) | 0.01 (0.001) | 1.65 (0.25) | 54.50 (4.6) | 3.45 (1.26) | 2.80 (1.31) | 15.0 (0.00) | 76.0 (1.01) | 8.9 (0.04) | 5.40 (0.10) | 2045 (49.5) | 1.86 (0.11) | |
Cp(R)+ | 2 | 0.03 (0.002) | 0.22 (0.01) | 3.55 (0.02) | 166.5 (4.6) | 12.0 (1.01) | 6.45 (0.25) | 42.5 (2.53) | 33.0 (2.02) | 13,900 (303,04) | 1.06 (0.03) | 1725 (29.3) | 4.32 (0.09) |
Sample ID | Parameter | Mn | Ga | Fe | P | As | Zn | Ti | Sr | Cr | Ni | Cu | Rb | Al | Ba | K | S | Ca |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MA+ | BCS+ | 0.009 (0.001) | 1.565 (0.632) | 0.002 (0.0001) | 5.349 (0.408) | 0.175 (0.012) | 0.900 (0.046) | 0.004 (0.0002) | 3.653 (3.356) | 0.025 (0.002) | 0.025 (0.002) | 0.256 (0.018) | 1.441 (0.082) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.003 (0.0001) | 3.500 (0.247) | 5.284 (0.731) | 2.138 (0.233) |
BCR+ | 0.082 (0.005) | 1.270 (0.319) | 0.098 (0.006) | 1.726 (0.087) | 0.281 (0.162) | 0.788 (0.035) | 0.167 (0.011) | 0.704 (0.388) | 0.261 (0.020) | 0.526 (0.039) | 0.271 (0.019) | 0.155 (0.010) | 0.086 (0.035) | 0.038 (0.001) | 2.114 (0.107) | 15.008 (2.265) | 0.936 (0.053) | |
TF+ | 0.114 (0.013) | 1.233 (0.808) | 0.023 (0.003) | 3.098 (0.393) | 0.623 (0.401) | 1.142 (0.064) | 0.021 (0.002) | 5.190 (3.973) | 0.095 (0.012) | 0.047 (0.005) | 0.943 (0.056) | 9.280 (0.698) | 0.0002 0.0001 | 0.080 (0.003) | 1.656 (0.141) | 0.352 (0.024) | 2.284 (0.189) | |
MA− | BCS− | 0.011 (0.001) | 1.064 (0.173) | 0.003 (0.0002) | 3.937 (0.394) | 0.125 (0.014) | 0.940 (0.100) | 0.006 (0.001) | 2.310 (0.161) | 0.006 (0.001) | 0.015 (0.002) | 0.232 (0.023) | 1.297 (0.057) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.005 (0.0004) | 3.087 (0.143) | 5.181 (0.626) | 1.835 (0.224) |
BCR− | 0.150 (0.012) | 1.709 (0.154) | 0.190 (0.016) | 1.204 (0.091) | 0.522 (0.065) | 1.144 (0.144) | 0.368 (0.034) | 1.257 (0.104) | 0.091 (0.016) | 0.209 (0.022) | 0.598 (0.050) | 1.387 (0.072) | 0.342 (0.012) | 0.064 (0.048) | 2.283 (0.106) | 11.529 (1.349) | 2.187 (0.270) | |
TF− | 0.073 (0.008) | 0.623 (0.157) | 0.014 (0.002) | 3.271 (0.576) | 0.231 (0.034) | 0.821 (0.067) | 0.017 (0.002) | 1.837 (0.164) | 0.065 (0.012) | 0.071 (0.012) | 0.389 (0.050) | 0.936 (0.054) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.070 (0.006) | 1.352 (0.078) | 0.449 (0.022) | 0.839 (0.051) |
Parameter | Mn | Ga | Fe | P | As | Zn | Ti | Cr | Ni | Cu | Rb | Sr | Al | Ba | K | S | Ca |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BCS | (−) | (=) | (−) | (+) | (+) | (=) | (−) | (+) | (+) | (=) | (+) | (=) | (=) | (−) | (+) | (=) | (=) |
BCR | (−) | (=) | (−) | (+) | (−) | (−) | (−) | (+) | (+) | (−) | (−) | (−) | (−) | (−) | (=) | (+) | (−) |
TF | (+) | (=) | (+) | (=) | (+) | (+) | (+) | (+) | (−) | (+) | (+) | (+) | (+) | (+) | (+) | (−) | (+) |
Parameter | Mn (ppm) | Fe (ppm) | Ga (ppm) | P (ppm) | As (ppm) | Zn (ppm) | Ti (ppm) | Cr (ppm) | Ni (ppm) | Cu (ppm) | Rb (ppm) | Sr (ppm) | Al (ppm) | Ba (ppm) | K (ppm) | S (ppm) | Ca (ppm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cp(S)+ | 520 (42) | 270,5 (20,5) | 31.5 (13,4) | 3803 (292) | 4.05 (0.07) | 1328 (53) | 9.5 (0.7) | 2.8 (0.3) | 1.8 (0.1) | 16.5 (0.7) | 116 (5.66) | 410 (240) | 0.95 (0.07) | 7.85 (0.21) | 77,000 (5657) | 5944.5 (227) | 22,500 (2121) |
Cp(R)+ | 4550 (343) | 11,888 (898) | 25.5 (5,4) | 1228 (50) | 6.5 (0.7) | 1162 (45) | 446 (34) | 29.5 (2.1) | 38 (2.8) | 17.5 (0.71) | 12.5 (0.71) | 79 (5.7) | 5550 (3181) | 98.5 (2.12) | 46,500 (2121) | 16,885 (941) | 9850 (212) |
Extracting g/VDM * | 34.82 | 60.01 | 1.017 | 114.7 | 0.145 | 43.22 | 2.199 | 0.208 | 0.216 | 0.550 | 3.392 | 12.14 | 23.99 | 0.6515 | 2417 | 243.9 | 690.0 |
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Scotti, A.; Milia, S.; Silvani, V.; Cappai, G.; Guglietta, D.; Trapasso, F.; Tempesta, E.; Passeri, D.; Godeas, A.; Gómez, M.; et al. Sustainable Recovery of Secondary and Critical Raw Materials from Classified Mining Residues Using Mycorrhizal-Assisted Phytoextraction. Metals 2021, 11, 1163. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11081163
Scotti A, Milia S, Silvani V, Cappai G, Guglietta D, Trapasso F, Tempesta E, Passeri D, Godeas A, Gómez M, et al. Sustainable Recovery of Secondary and Critical Raw Materials from Classified Mining Residues Using Mycorrhizal-Assisted Phytoextraction. Metals. 2021; 11(8):1163. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11081163
Chicago/Turabian StyleScotti, Adalgisa, Stefano Milia, Vanesa Silvani, Giovanna Cappai, Daniela Guglietta, Francesca Trapasso, Emanuela Tempesta, Daniele Passeri, Alicia Godeas, Martín Gómez, and et al. 2021. "Sustainable Recovery of Secondary and Critical Raw Materials from Classified Mining Residues Using Mycorrhizal-Assisted Phytoextraction" Metals 11, no. 8: 1163. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11081163