Author Contributions
Conceptualization, S.C., L.C.T. and S.H., methodology, S.C., L.C.T., H.B., S.H., N.K.M., T.M.M., T.M. and M.L.; validation, S.C., L.C.T., H.B., N.K.M., T.M.M., T.M. and M.L.; formal analysis, S.C., L.C.T., H.B., N.K.M., T.M.M., T.M. and M.L.; investigation, H.B., N.K.M., T.M.M., M.L. and T.M.; resources, L.C.T., S.C., H.B. and S.H.; data curation, H.B., T.M. and M.L.; writing—original draft preparation, L.C.T. and S.C.; writing—review and editing, S.C., L.C.T., H.B., S.H., N.K.M. and T.M.M.; visualization, S.C. and L.C.T.; supervision, L.C.T., S.C., H.B. and S.H., project administration, L.C.T.; funding acquisition, L.C.T., H.B. and S.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was funded by the Department of Science and Innovation, project number DST/CON 0005/2018 “4D Hybrid manufacturing” and “the Advanced Materials Initiative (AMI)”, project number DSI/CON 0000/2020, for the plasma treatment of powder.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available as they form part of an ongoing study.
Acknowledgments
The Nuclear Materials Group at Necsa, especially Milton Makhofane is thanked for their contribution during the plasma spheroidisation experiments.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.
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Figure 1.
Schematic of the TEKNA 15 kW experimental setup.
Figure 2.
Product distribution for fractions after plasma treatment of control trial sample.
Figure 3.
Product distribution for fractions after plasma treatment of the bulk sample.
Figure 4.
Size fractions of the powder present in the feed after plasma treatment and after cleaning and sieving.
Figure 5.
Low and high magnification micrographs of the AISI 304 SS powder for (a,b) irregular feed powder, and products after the plasma spheroidisation from the (c,d) catch-pot and (e,f) reactor walls for the −63 µm and +63–106 µm size distributions.
Figure 6.
Micrographs showing cross-section of AISI 304 SS powder for irregular feed powder (a,b) −63 µm and +63–106 µm and for spheroidised powder from catchpot (c,d) for −63 µm and +63–106 µm size powders.
Figure 7.
EDS analysis of the (a) irregular feedstock, and products after the plasma spheroidisation from the (b) catch-pot and (c) reactor walls.
Figure 8.
(a) The frequency and (b) cumulative distribution curves for AISI 304 SS irregular and spheroidised powder.
Figure 9.
The sphericity index for untreated and plasma treated powder.
Figure 10.
FT4 compressibility as a function of normal stress.
Figure 11.
Shear test and yield locus classification.
Table 1.
Particle size distribution of the feed powder for the bulk test.
| Size Fraction (µm) | 0–38 | 38–45 | 45–63 | 63–75 | 75–90 | >90 | Total |
---|
Feed powder | Feed material (g) | 736.67 | 79.33 | 1218.63 | 1225.00 | 463.67 | 0.00 | 3723.30 |
Fraction in feed (%) | 19.79 | 2.13 | 32.73 | 32.90 | 12.45 | 0.00 | 100.00 |
Size fraction (µm) | 0–63 | 63–106 | |
(%) of fraction | 54.65 | 45.35 | 100.00 |
Table 2.
Typical elemental composition, in wt.%, of AISI 304 type austenitic stainless steel.
| Carbon C% | Manganese Mn% | Phosphorus P% | Sulphur S% | Silicon Si% | Chromium Cr% | Nickel Ni% | Iron Fe% |
---|
AISI standard | 0.08 | 2.0 | 0.045 | 0.03 | 1.0 | 18–20 | 8.0–12 | Balance |
Table 3.
Summary of the powder distribution from the bulk test after plasma treatment and the powder quantities after powder cleaning and resieving.
| Size Fraction (µm) | 0–38 | 38–45 | 45–63 | 63–75 | 75–90 | >90 | Total |
---|
After plasma treatment | Mass recoveries after plasma treatment (g) | 680.86 | 73.32 | 1134.50 | 1112.95 | 445.07 | 0.00 | 3446.70 |
Percent recoveries after plasma treatment (%) | 92.42 | 92.42 | 93.10 | 90.85 | 95.99 | 0.00 | 93.57 |
Fraction in plasma treated powder (%) | 19.75 | 2.13 | 32.92 | 32.29 | 12.91 | 0.00 | 100.00 |
(%) of fraction | 54.80 | 45.20 | 100.00 |
After powder cleaning and sieving | Mass recoveries after powder cleaning and sieving (g) | 573.88 | 0.00 | 539.86 | 1457.99 | 827.73 | 20.65 | 3420.11 |
Percent recoveries after powder cleaning and sieving (%) | 77.90 | 0.00 | 44.30 | 119.20 | 178.52 | 0.00 | 91.86 |
Fraction in cleaned powder (%) | 16.78 | 0.00 | 15.78 | 42.63 | 24.20 | 0.60 | 100.00 |
(%) of fraction | 32.56 | 67.44 | 100.00 |
Table 4.
The elemental composition, in wt.%, of the steel and foreign objects detected in the reactor walls.
Element | AISI Standard | Irregular Powder | Catch-Pot Powder | Rwall Powder |
---|
Fe | Bal | 66.51 | 66.22 | 66.46 |
Cr | 18–20 | 19.98 | 19.14 | 18.38 |
Ni | 8–12 | 10.46 | 10.16 | 10.97 |
Mn | 2 Max | - | - | - |
Si | 1 Max | 0.77 | 1.04 | 1.31 |
O | - | 2.29 | 3.34 | 2.89 |
Table 5.
The summary of the powder distribution and shape of the spheroidised powder.
Material | Particle Size Distribution (µm) | Mean Sphericity Ratio | Circularity |
---|
| D10 | D50 | D90 | |
---|
Irregular −63 µm | 19 | 40 | 69 | 0.84 | 0.72 |
Irregular +63 µm | 47 | 77 | 131 | 0.81 | 0.67 |
Spherical −63 µm | 40 | 57 | 87 | 0.82 | 0.67 |
Spherical +63 µm | 53 | 76 | 127 | 0.80 | 0.64 |
Table 6.
Summary of AISI 304 SS flowability results.
| −63 µm | −63 µm | +63–106 µm | +63–106 µm |
---|
Irregular | Spherical | Irregular | Spherical |
---|
Hall funnel (s/50 g) | 33.44 ± 0.66 | 22.67 ± 0.29 | 30.93 ± 0.42 | 12.21 ± 0.05 |
Apparent density (g/cc) | 3.06 | 4.36 | 2.67 | 4.61 |
Table 7.
Jenike classification of powder flowability (Adapted from ref. [
19]).
Flow Index (ffc) | <1 | <2 | <4 | <10 | >10 |
---|
Flow Behaviour | Not flowing/Hardened | Very cohesive | Cohesive | Easy Flowing | Free Flowing |
Table 8.
Powder flow characteristics.
Material | Cohesion | Unconfined Yield Strength | Major Principal Stress | Relj/ffc | Internal Friction Angle | Wall Friction Angle |
---|
C (kPa) | UYS (kPa) | MPS (kPa) | | AiF(E)° | WFA° |
---|
Irregular 304SS −63 µm | 0.38 | 1.34 | 13.8 | 10 | 30 | 26 |
Irregular 304SS +63 µm | 0.20 | 0.74 | 13.2 | 18 | 27 | 25 |
Spherical 304SS −63 µm | 0.27 | 0.76 | 12 | 16 | 22 | 14 |
Spherical 304SS +63 µm | 0.19 | 0.53 | 12 | 19 | 20 | 13 |
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