Curiosity as a Key Pathway Linking Future Time Perspective to Earlier Financial Preparation Timing

Abstract

As Taiwan faces rapid population aging and increasing longevity, individuals are expected to assume greater responsibility for their own financial security in later life. Future Time Perspective (FTP) is a well-established cognitive-motivational construct associated with long-term planning, while curiosity has been linked to adaptive functioning and sustained cognitive engagement across the lifespan. However, its role in shaping perceived timing of financial preparation remains underexplored. This study examined the associations among FTP, joyous exploration (JE), and perceived timing for financial preparation, and tested whether curiosity mediates this relationship. Cross-sectional data from 435 adults in Taiwan (aged 31–89 years) were analyzed. Participants completed validated measures of FTP, JE, and perceived timing for initiating financial preparation. OLS regression and mediation analyses were conducted, controlling for age, sex, education, and health. FTP was positively associated with JE. JE predicted earlier perceived financial preparation timing. Although the direct effect of FTP indicated endorsement of later preparation ages when controlling for JE, a significant negative indirect effect demonstrated that higher FTP was linked to earlier preparation ages through increased JE, reflecting inconsistent mediation. JE may represent a modifiable psychological pathway for promoting earlier and more proactive financial preparation in super-aging societies such as Taiwan.

1. Introduction

By 2050, over 2.1 billion people worldwide will be over 60, fundamentally reshaping how societies must approach financial preparation for later life [1]. In 2026, Taiwan was officially classified as a “super-aged society”, with over twenty percent of its population aged 65 and older [2]. This unprecedented demographic transformation has generated both and far-reaching benefits and challenges for institutions, prompting an urgent need to understand the complex interplay of psychological and temporal cognitive mechanisms that shape when and how individuals prepare financially for later life.

1.1. Population Aging Trend: Increasing Longevity and the Individualization of Retirement Risk in Taiwan

Increased longevity reflects significant epidemiological and socioeconomic progress, including advances in healthcare, improved living conditions, and declining mortality rates [3,4]. However, it also poses considerable challenges to pension systems, which must adapt to finance increasingly prolonged retirement periods. Consequently, there has been a notable global trend implementing labor market and pension reforms that shift greater responsibility onto individuals to alleviate financial pressure on public retirement systems [1,5]. Trends in these reforms generally include: 1. Reductions in mandatory public pension generosity to incentivize private retirement savings, 2. Shifts from defined benefit (DB) to defined contribution (DC) private pension schemes, 3. Expansion of individualized pension accounts that grant beneficiaries greater autonomy in determining contribution rates, and payout or decumulation options, and 4. Introduction of reforms such as the Active Aging framework and other delayed retirement incentives to enhance labor force participation among older adults, and mitigate the fiscal pressures associated with demographic aging.

In general, Taiwan follows a similar structural framework. Formally employed individuals are primarily covered by the Labor Insurance system and the Labor Pension system [5,6]. The Labor Pension system operates under a defined DC model, whereby employers are required to contribute at least six percent of an employee’s monthly wage into an individual pension account, while employees may voluntarily contribute up to an additional six percent [7,8,9]. Upon reaching age 60, the accumulated principal and accrued investment returns may be withdrawn either as a lump sum or converted into monthly payments. These contribution requirements also apply to individuals who are re-employed after retirement [10].

Despite this structured system, concerns regarding retirement adequacy remain. First, the average monthly Labor Insurance pension is approximately NT$18,000, which falls below average per capita monthly living expenses [11]. This insufficiency may become particularly exacerbated in high-cost urban cities such as Taipei and Taichung, increasing financial strain among retirees [12].

Second, the DC design of the Labor Pension system shifts investment and longevity risk onto individuals, making retirement income contingent upon accumulated contributions and market performance. This structure may increase retirees’ vulnerability to macroeconomic inflationary pressures, which erode the real value of pension income over time [1]. In addition, individuals must rely more heavily on precautionary savings to buffer against unexpected medical or financial shocks [13,14]. Concurrent sociocultural shifts in Taiwan, such as the decline of traditional multigenerational co-residence, may further reduce informal family-based support and increase living costs, intensifying the need for individual financial preparedness [15,16]. Public perception also reflects these structural pressures. A recent survey conducted by Taiwan’s Hondao Senior Citizen’s Welfare Foundation found that 84% of near and recent retirees believed they lacked sufficient retirement savings and expressed concerns about long-term care, medical, and unexpected future expenses [11,13]. Collectively, these structural dynamics highlight an impending urgency to comprehensively understand the mechanisms that support proactive financial planning for later life, particularly within Taiwan’s rapidly aging and socioeconomically transforming context.

1.2. Curiosity

Curiosity has been described as the recognition, pursuit, and desire to explore novel, uncertain, complex, or ambiguous information and experiences [17]. In this aspect, curiosity functions as an epistemic motive: it drives individuals to seek out relevant information, reduce uncertainty, and update their behavioral strategies in anticipation of future demands. Growing evidence suggests that curiosity also plays a key role in adaptive aging by supporting cognitive functioning, well-being, and physical health in older adults [18,19].

Several theoretical frameworks have sought to conceptualize how curiosity is embedded in human cognition [17,20,21]. At present, the five-dimensional curiosity scale is a conceptually robust and comprehensive attempt to synthesize this multidimensional construct [17]. The proposed model identifies five distinct dimensions of curiosity: Joyous Exploration (JE), deprivation sensitivity, stress tolerance, social curiosity, and thrill seeking.

JE captures the intrinsic enjoyment of discovering novel information and experiences, emphasizing growth over predictability. Deprivation sensitivity reflects the urgent drive to resolve knowledge gaps due to the discomfort of not knowing [17]. Thirdly, stress tolerance captures the capacity to embrace the uncertainty and ambiguity often involved in exploration, rather than avoiding it. The fourth component, social curiosity, describes the interest in knowing how other people think, behave, or feel, which may involve both overt questioning and covert observation. Finally, thrill seeking reflects the belief that a fulfilling life involves pursuing excitement and adventure, particularly in situations that involve physical, social, or legal risks.

Among the five curiosity dimensions, JE has demonstrated the strongest association with positive psychological functioning and adaptive life outcomes [17]. At its core, it reflects a dispositional, trait-like tendency toward intrinsically motivated learning, openness to experiences, personal growth, and the pursuit of meaning through novel experiences [22]. Empirical evidence has consistently linked curiosity with indicators of well-being, including happiness, meaning in life, and the satisfaction of core psychological needs. Given its empirical and theoretical comprehensiveness in capturing curiosity as a trait conducive to adaptive psychological functioning, JE was selected as the focal subcomponent in the present study.

1.3. Linking the Constructs: FTP, Curiosity and Perceived Timeline for Financial Preparation

The integration of these constructs is best understood through the lens of Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (SST). SST posits that individuals are inherently agentic and selectively pursue goals based on their anticipated utility. FTP therefore operates as a central cognitive-motivational construct shaping how individuals prioritize goals and allocate effort across time: when future time is perceived as limited, individuals tend to shift toward emotionally meaningful and present-focused goals [23,24]. In contrast, when future time is perceived as expansive, the expected value of long-term, knowledge-oriented goals increases. This is because the benefits of these investments can be realized over an extended time horizon.

Within this goal-setting process, curiosity functions as a key exploratory catalyst. Achieving long-term goals requires the acquisition of new information to facilitate the development of competencies to effectively support future goal attainment. As future time is perceived as more expansive, individuals place greater value on long-term goals, thereby increasing the demand for information relevant to those goals [25]. This heightened informational demand may be linked to higher curiosity to support exploration and learning [18,26].

Life-History Theory (LHT) further situates this as a supplementary contextual lens for understanding long-term investment and resource allocation. It suggests that individuals adaptively calibrate their behavior along a continuum of ‘fast’ versus ‘slow’ strategies, depending on environmental stability and resource availability [27,28]. In stable and predictable environments, individuals are more likely to adopt expansive FTP, where managing current resources toward future outcomes becomes an adaptive strategy [29]. Harsh and unpredictable environments, generally characterized by low socioeconomic status and high mortality, tend to promote “fast” life-history strategies which are more present-focused, prioritizing immediate gratification [27,28].

However, financial decision-making, especially in the context of retirement planning, is inherently complex and influenced by a multitude of psychological and socioeconomic factors [30,31,32,33]. Behavioral economic perspectives including the prospect theory and the disposition effect suggest that financial preparation is not simply a rational planning process, but one shaped by uncertainty, loss aversion, emotional regulation, and self-control [34,35]. As a result, decision-making may deviate from long-term optimal strategies, particularly in the presence of financial risk [33].

In this context, curiosity may represent a critical, yet underexplored, mechanism. While FTP has been consistently linked to more successful financial goal attainment, including reduced impulsive spending and more proactive retirement preparation [30,36,37], the role of curiosity appears to be more complex. On one hand, curiosity has been empirically linked to improved financial literacy, lower tolerance for financial risk-taking [38], and a range of adaptive developmental outcomes, including enhanced cognitive functioning, psychological resilience, goal-directed behavior, and overall well-being [19,39,40,41]. On the other hand, curiosity shares neural and behavioral overlap with impulsivity and has been linked to impulsive buying behaviors that may undermine long-term financial goals [42,43,44]. Emerging evidence also suggests that curiosity may function as an emotion regulation mechanism, enabling individuals to reframe uncertainty by shifting from evaluative to exploratory processing [26,45,46]. This cognitive shift can reduce negative affect and enhance psychological flexibility, thereby supporting sustained engagement with new information [19].

This duality positions curiosity as a meaningful pathway linking FTP to financial preparation behaviors. Across contexts, curiosity functions as both a driver of exploratory behavior and a regulatory mechanism that may facilitate sustained engagement with long-term financial planning [44,45]. This raises an important question: to what extent is curiosity associated with the relationship between one’s future time orientation and their perceived readiness for initiating financial preparation in later life?

The present study has three aims. First, we examine the association between FTP and JE. Second, we investigate the independent associations of both FTP and JE with perceived optimal timing for initiating financial preparation. Third, we test whether JE mediates the relationship between FTP and perceived timing for financial preparation. From the theoretical integration above, we hypothesize that individuals who perceive their future as more expansive and opportunity-rich will exhibit higher levels of curiosity, which in turn facilitates earlier perceived engagement with financial preparation. The conceptual pathway is illustrated in Figure 1 below.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants/Setting

The data were derived from a Taiwanese sample participating in the 2018 Aging as Future online survey study [47]. Participants were recruited through online platforms and completed a centrally administered, structured web-based questionnaire as part of the project framework. A more comprehensive description of the study procedures and sampling strategy can be found in [47].

After excluding 11 respondents due to missing or incomplete responses, the final sample included N = 435 participants. Sociodemographic characteristics for the entire sample population are shown in

Table 1. Sociodemographic Table.

Variable	Item	Total Sample N (%)
Age	31–40	58 (13.3)
	41–50	94 (21.2)
	51+	283 (65.1)
Gender	Male	190 (43.7)
	Female	245 (56.3)
Marital Status	Single	29 (6.7)
	Married/Common-Law Union	338 (77.7)
	Separated/Divorced	21 (4.8)
	Widowed	47 (10.8)
Education	Primary	105 (24.1)
	Secondary	155 (35.7)
	Bachelor	134 (30.8)
	Master/Doctoral	41 (9.4)
Income (TWD)	Low (<40,000)	171 (39.3)
	Lower-middle (40,000–79,999)	110 (25.3)
	Upper-middle (80,001–199,999)	95 (21.8)
	High (≥200 k)	9 (2.1)
	Prefer not to answer	50 (11.5)

below.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Future Time Perspective

FTP was assessed using a 10-item scale developed by Carstensen and Lang (1996) [48]. This scale evaluates perceptions of remaining lifetime and their influence on motivation, cognition, and emotions. Sample items included “Many opportunities await me in the future”, “My future seems infinite to me”, and “As I get older, I begin to experience time as limited” using a 5-point scale of agreement ranging from ‘does not apply’ to ‘applies very much’ (see

Table A1. FTP Scale.

Label	Ratings
Many opportunities await me in the future.	1 = does not apply at all to 7 = applies very much
I expect that I will set many new goals in the future.	1 = does not apply at all to 7 = applies very much
My future is filled with possibilities.	1 = does not apply at all to 7 = applies very much
Most of my life lies ahead of me.	1 = does not apply at all to 7 = applies very much
My future seems infinite to me.	1 = does not apply at all to 7 = applies very much
I could do anything I want in the future.	1 = does not apply at all to 7 = applies very much
There is plenty of time left in my life to make new plans.	1 = does not apply at all to 7 = applies very much
I have the sense time is running out.	1 = does not apply at all to 7 = applies very much
There are only limited possibilities in my future.	1 = does not apply at all to 7 = applies very much
As I get older, I begin to experience time as limited.	1 = does not apply at all to 7 = applies very much
Sum score: Future Time Perspective, FTP (ftp_1, _2, _3, _4, _5, _6, _7, _8r, _9r, _10r)	Aggregated variable—output categorical: 10 = minimum FTP to 70 = maximum FTP

).

2.2.2. Joyous Exploration

JE was measured using subscale of the Five-Dimensional Curiosity Scale [17]. This subscale consisted of five questions designed to capture one’s preference for new information and experiences, as well as a valuing of self-expansion over security. Participants responded to statements such as, “I am always looking for experiences that challenge how I think about myself and the world” and “I enjoy learning about subjects that are unfamiliar to me”, using a 7-point scale of agreement ranging from ‘does not apply at all’ to ‘applies completely’ (see

Table A2. JE Scale.

Label	Ratings
I view challenging situations as an opportunitiy to grow and learn.	1 = does not apply at all to 7 = applies completely
I am always looking for experiences that challenge how I think about myself and the world.	1 = does not apply at all to 7 = applies completely
I seek out situations where it is likely that I will have to think n depth about something	1 = does not apply at all to 7 = applies completely
I enjoy learning about subjects that are unfamiliar to me.	1 = does not apply at all to 7 = applies completely
I find it fascinating to learn new information.	1 = does not apply at all to 7 = applies completely
Mean score: Joyous Exploration, Five Dimensional Curiosity Scale (cur_1, _2, _3, _4, _5)	Aggregated variable—output categorical: 1 = minimum curiosity to 7 = maximum curiosity

).

2.2.3. Perceived Timing for Financial Preparation

Perceived timing for financial preparation was assessed using the timing subdimension of the Provision Making Scale, which captures individuals’ subjective perceptions regarding when preparation for later life should begin [47,49]. The measure assessed the earliest acceptable age for initiating financial preparation. Using a graphical life course scale from 0 (beginning of life) to 100 (end of life), participants answered questions such as: “When is, in your opinion, the earliest (good) point in time that one should start preparing for financial security in old age?” (see

Table A3. Perceived Timing for Financial Preparation Scale.

Label	Ratings
When is, in your opinion, the earliest (good) point in time that one should start preparing for financial security in old age? (START)	Slider: 0 = Beginning of Life to 100 = End of life

).

2.2.4. Covariates

Age, sex (coded as male = 0, female = 1), education level (measured on an 8-point scale, where 1 = primary education and 8 = doctoral or equivalent), and self-rated health status (measured on a 5-point scale, where 1 = very good and 5 = bad) were included as covariates, as prior research has demonstrated their associations with JE, FTP, and aging-related planning behaviors [18,50,51].

The full survey items corresponding to the variables used in this study are provided in Appendix A.

2.3. Design & Procedure

This study employed a cross-sectional design using data from Wave 4 (2018) of the Aging as Future survey, as described in Section 2.1.

Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the National Cheng Kung University Human Research Ethics Committee (NCKU-HREC No. 107-311). All participants provided informed consent prior to participation.

2.4. Statistical Analyses

Data processing and statistical analyses were conducted using Jupyter Notebook 6.5.2 with Python 3.13.9. Data were first cleaned and continuous predictors were mean-centered prior to regression analyses.

We conducted a bivariate Pearson correlation analysis to assess associations between all variables. To assess multicollinearity among predictors, we calculated Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) scores. High multicollinearity, indicated by VIF values exceeding 5 to 10, can lead to unstable regression coefficients and was therefore examined before mediation analysis [52]. Statistical significance was determined at alpha level of p < 0.05 (two-tailed).

Mediation analyses were conducted using ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models implemented in the statsmodels package in Python. In the primary mediation model, FTP was specified as the predictor (X), JE as the mediator (M), and perceived financial preparation start age as the outcome (Y). All mediation models were estimated while adjusting for the covariates described above. Statistical inference for the indirect effect was based on nonparametric bootstrap resampling with 3000 iterations to generate 95% confidence intervals. An indirect effect was considered statistically significant if the bootstrap confidence interval did not include zero. Direct, indirect, and total effects were reported.

3. Results

3.1. Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations

Table 2. Pearson’s Correlation Matrix.

Measure	Mean ± SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. FTP	40.43 ± 12.33	1
2. JE	4.33 ± 1.54	0.64 ***	1
3. Fin. Prep	42.60 ± 14.64	−0.04	−0.15 **	1
4. Age	58.85 ± 14.89	−0.36 ***	−0.25 ***	0.16 ***	1
5. Sex (Female)	0.56 ± 0.50	−0.04	−0.02	−0.11 *	−0.08	1
6. Health	3.51 ± 1.02	0.50 ***	−0.48 ***	0.13 **	0.30 ***	0.02	1
7. Education	3.60 ± 2.10	0.26 ***	0.29 ***	−0.14 **	−0.68 ***	−0.08	−0.25 ***	1

Significance reported at * p  <  0.05; ** p  <  0.01; *** p  <  0.001.

presents the means, standard deviations, and Pearson correlation coefficients among the study variables. VIF values were all below 2.1, indicating low multicollinearity among the variables.

The correlation coefficients revealed a significant positive association between FTP and JE, indicating that these traits are closely related. JE was significantly associated with earlier perceived financial preparation timing. Although FTP showed a negative association with preparation timing, this relationship was not statistically significant.

3.2. Aim 1: To Examine the Relationship Between FTP and JE

To examine whether FTP was associated with JE, an OLS regression analysis was conducted with JE as the dependent variable. Controlling for age, sex, health, and education, FTP was a significant positive predictor of JE, b = 0.068, SE = 0.005, t = 12.90, p < 0.001. The overall model was significant, F(5, 429) = 75.58, p < 0.001, explaining 46.8% of the variance in JE (R² = 0.468).

3.3. Aims 2 and 3: Direct and Indirect Effects of FTP on Perceived Timing for Financial Preparation

To examine whether FTP was associated with perceived optimal timing for financial preparation and whether this association was mediated by JE, a mediation analysis was conducted (see

Table 3. OLS regression predicting JE from FTP and covariates.

Measure	b	SE	t	p
Intercept	0.540	0.278	1.94	0.053
FTP (centered)	0.068	0.005	12.90	<0.001
Age (centered)	0.015	0.005	2.81	0.005
Sex (Female)	0.093	0.112	0.83	0.405
Health	−0.315	0.062	−5.07	<0.001
Education	0.143	0.036	4.01	<0.001

Note. Data were drawn from the Wave 4 (2018) survey and are cross-sectional. Unstandardized coefficients (b) are reported. Sex was coded 0 = male, 1 = female. Model fit: R² = 0.468, adjusted R² = 0.462, F(5, 429) = 75.58, p < 0.001.

).

Regarding the independent associations specified in Aim 2, JE was significantly associated with perceived preparation timing, b = −1.573, SE = 0.608, t = −2.59, p = 0.010, such that higher JE predicted earlier perceived preparation ages. When JE was included in the model, FTP significantly predicted preparation timing, b = 0.185, SE = 0.078, t = 2.37, p = 0.018. However, the total effect of FTP on preparation timing was not statistically significant, b = 0.078, SE = 0.067, t = 1.17, p = 0.242.

Addressing Aim 3, the indirect effect of FTP on preparation timing through JE was statistically significant (a × b = −0.107), with a 95% bootstrap confidence interval of [−0.191, −0.023], indicating that the interval did not include zero (see

Table 4. Mediation analysis testing JE as a psychological pathway linking FTP to financial preparation timing.

Measure	b	SE	t	p
Mediator Model (JE as DV)
FTP → JE (a)	0.068	0.005	12.90	<0.001
Outcome Model (Fin. Prep as DV)
JE → Fin. Prep (b)	−1.573	0.608	−2.59	0.010
FTP → Fin. Prep (c’)	0.185	0.078	2.37	0.018
Total Effect
FTP → Fin. Prep (c)	0.078	0.067	1.17	0.242
Indirect Effect (a × b)	−0.107
95% Bootstrap CI	[−0.191, −0.023]

Note. Data were drawn from the Wave 4 (2018) survey and are cross-sectional; all variables were measured at the same time point. All models adjusted for age, sex, health, and education. Unstandardized coefficients (b) are reported with 95% bootstrap confidence intervals. Model fit: R² = 0.064, adjusted R² = 0.051, F(6, 428) = 4.89, p < 0.001.

). This pattern reflects inconsistent partial mediation, whereby the indirect effect operated in the opposite direction of the direct effect.

4. Discussion

This study employed a combination of OLS and mediation analysis to examine the associations of FTP and JE with perceived timing for financial preparation in later life. While FTP has been consistently associated with more proactive financial planning and goal-directed behavior [30,36,37], the role of curiosity within this framework remains both theoretically and empirically underexplored. Therefore, the goals of the present study were to examine (a) the relationship between FTP and JE, (b) the independent associations of FTP and JE with perceived timing for financial preparation, and (c) the mediating role of JE in the association between FTP and perceived preparation timing. To our knowledge, this study represents the first empirical investigation to jointly examine FTP and JE in relation to perceived timing of financial preparation.

The findings provided clear support for the first aim: FTP was significantly associated with higher JE. Findings related to the second aim showed an interesting pattern. JE was significantly associated with earlier perceived timing for initiating financial preparation, indicating that individuals higher in JE tended to endorse younger ages for initiating financial planning. However, the direct association of FTP with financial preparation timing was positive and statistically significant. This suggests that independent of JE, individuals with a more expansive FTP tended to endorse later ages for initiating financial preparation.

Despite this divergence, findings related to the third aim provided evidence of a significant indirect association through JE. FTP was associated with higher JE, and higher JE was associated with earlier perceived financial preparation timing. This pattern reflects competitive mediation, where the indirect and direct effects operate in opposite directions. The non-significant total effect suggests that these opposing pathways may offset one another, obscuring meaningful underlying associations.

In general, these findings are broadly consistent with extant literature [18,19,36,37,53,54] while also extending it in important ways. First, an expansive FTP appears to be significantly associated with adaptively intelligent traits such as curiosity-driven exploration, which is a foundational catalyst for sustained learning and prospective planning [17,55]. Second, JE appears to be a key psychological factor in this association, potentially reflecting how and when individuals begin to cognitively engage with financial age-related planning. That is, individuals with higher FTP may be more attuned to long-term outcomes via heightened JE, and are therefore more likely to initiate aging preparation at an earlier point in the life course.

However, the observed inconsistent mediation diverges from much of the existing literature, generally linking increased FTP with earlier planning behaviors [18,30,48,49,56]. Several statistical and psychological factors may account for this pattern. Psychologically, FTP may exhibit a dual pattern of associations with perceived preparation timing. On one hand, the indirect association through JE may reflect greater exploratory engagement and proactive planning toward preparation-related information, which corresponds to earlier perceived preparation [23,30,57]. On the other hand, independent of JE, individuals with a more expansive FTP may perceive that they have sufficient time remaining, which may attenuate the sense of urgency, corresponding with later perceived initiation timing when JE is controlled. This interpretation aligns with the principles of SST, suggesting that an expansive FTP may simultaneously encourage exploration (via curiosity) while also moderating perceived urgency [24].

Statistically, this pattern is also consistent with suppression. Because FTP and JE are conceptually and empirically related, including JE in the model may account for the curiosity-driven component of FTP. Once this shared variance is modeled through JE, the direct FTP association may more strongly reflect reduced urgency or perceived time abundance.

Limitations

Several limitations should be acknowledged. First, only the JE subscale of the Five-Dimensional Curiosity Scale was used. Given the multifaceted nature of curiosity, future research should examine other dimensions of the construct and how they interact with FTP and goal orientation. Therefore, caution is warranted when generalizing these findings to other dimensions of the construct.

Second, the outcome variable measured participants’ perceived timing for financial preparation, which reflects a subjective cognitive judgment rather than actual preparatory behavior. While such perceptions are important indicators of cognitive readiness, they may not translate directly into real-world actions. Individuals may endorse early preparation in principle but fail to engage in concrete financial behaviors due to structural, economic, or motivational constraints. This limits the extent to which the present findings can be interpreted as indicative of actual financial preparedness.

Third, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inference. Although the mediation model is theoretically grounded, the temporal ordering among FTP, JE, and perceived financial preparation cannot be definitively established. Reverse or reciprocal relationships are also plausible; for example, individuals who are already engaged in financial planning may develop greater JE or a more expansive FTP over time. Consequently, the observed mediation should be interpreted as reflecting statistical associations consistent with potential pathways rather than confirmed causal mechanisms. Future research should employ longitudinal or experimental designs to better establish directionality and examine how these relationships evolve across the life course.

Finally, the present study was conducted within a Taiwanese sample, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other cultural contexts. Cultural norms and institutional structures surrounding financial preparation, intergenerational responsibility, and future planning may shape both the expression of JE and its association with financial decision-making. For instance, reliance on family-based support systems may reduce the perceived urgency for early individual financial preparation. Future research should examine these relationships across more diverse cultural settings, especially in cultures experiencing rapid aging (such as Japan, South Korea, and Germany), to determine whether the observed patterns hold in different sociocultural environments.

5. Conclusions

The present study offers valuable insight into the associations between FTP and JE in financial preparation for later life. To date, most research has examined the trajectory of curiosity across the lifespan and its adaptive function in older adulthood [18,19]. Far fewer studies have considered how curiosity, and specifically JE interacts with cognitive-motivational factors to prospectively shape when and how individuals perceive it appropriate to initiate financial preparation.

From a practical perspective, JE may present a malleable intervention target for encouraging proactive financial engagement. These implications are particularly salient in Taiwan, where (1) rapid population aging and evolving pension structures have shifted increasing responsibility for retirement planning onto individuals, and (2) concurrent intergenerational and demographic transitions, such as the decline of traditional multigenerational co-residence, may reduce informal family-based support while increasing individual financial burden. As such, identifying the psychological mechanisms that shape when individuals initiate financial preparation becomes not merely exploratory but increasingly urgent.

Policymakers and practitioners may benefit from designing interventions that actively stimulate exploratory engagement. For example, interactive financial education tools, scenario-based planning simulations, and personalized retirement projections may encourage individuals to explore future financial outcomes more deeply. These practical approaches may help translate abstract future-oriented thinking into concrete preparatory actions, promoting sustained financial security across the life course.