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Article

Relationship Between Emotional Self-Regulation and the Perception of School Violence: Pilot Study in La Araucanía, Chile

by
Flavio Muñoz-Troncoso
1,2 and
Enrique Riquelme-Mella
2,*
1
Faculty of Education, Universidad Católica de Temuco, Temuco 4810296, Chile
2
Faculty of Social Sciences and Arts, Universidad Mayor, Temuco 4801043, Chile
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Societies 2025, 15(8), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15080221
Submission received: 1 April 2025 / Revised: 16 June 2025 / Accepted: 16 July 2025 / Published: 11 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersections of Social and Educational Policies Impacting Adolescent Mental Health)
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Abstract

The increase in school violence, especially post-pandemic, has been widely addressed in various research studies. This pilot study, carried out in the Araucanía Region (Chile), aims to explore the relationship between negative emotional self-regulation of stress and perceptions of school violence. A cross-sectional and descriptive methodology was used, with confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to evaluate the validity of the scales applied, and a structural equation model (SEM) to analyze the influence of self-regulation on the perception of types of school violence. The participants were 239 students between the ages of 9 and 15 (M = 11.45; SD = 1.47). The results showed a positive and statistically significant relationship between negative stress self-regulation and the perception of school violence, indicating that those with a greater tendency to avoid negative emotions perceived or experienced more violence. The findings suggest that emotional self-regulation, particularly avoidance, can be a relevant factor in the perception and management of school violence, highlighting the importance of educational interventions and policies that promote adaptive emotional skills within the school context.

1. Introduction

Recent research emphasizes the importance of promoting positive mental health and preventing mental disorders in adolescents. Evidence-based interventions, particularly school-based programs focusing on social and emotional learning, have shown promise in enhancing well-being and reducing mental health problems [1] (Santre, 2022). Violence is an element that can seriously affect the mental health of students as well as damaging learning outcomes [2]. Several studies showed a significant increase in school violence after the pandemic, compared to the figures reported during the COVID-19 lockdown [3,4]. It is important to remember that the education system switched from face-to-face teaching to online learning [5], which, together with physical–social distancing and the increased use of online games, led to an increase in digital violence [6]. In addition, Chile was one of the countries that extended remote classes for the longest period of time [7]. According to the research of Muñoz-Troncoso et al. [8], this context led to a reduction in other forms of violence that only occur in face-to-face settings. In this sense, the findings of Jordán and Lira [9] support this idea, demonstrating a decrease in victimization and school violence during remote classes.
During the lockdown in Latin America, an increase in gender-based violence in family settings was observed. According to the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), there was an increase in the incidence of domestic violence. This phenomenon led to the anticipation, in both the short and long term, of an increase in school violence, attributed to the exposure of children and young people to domestic violence, either as victims or witnesses, which could lead to the replication and normalization of these behaviors in schools [10]. In Chile, in 2021, the Superintendency of School Education (SUPEREDUC) registered 1586 complaints related to breaches of school coexistence, figures notably higher than those reported during virtual classes. Of these complaints, 40% related to the mistreatment of students, 17% to disciplinary measures, 14% to cases of discrimination, and 4% to participation in school activities [11].
Violence, understood as a historical construct, is associated with the domination of one individual or group over another [12,13]. This phenomenon emerges from the interaction between direct, structural and cultural violence, given that, as structural violence becomes institutionalized and cultural violence internalized, direct violence becomes a repetitive and ritual cycle [14]. From another perspective, the concept of microphysical violence is proposed, which points out that violence is shaped by the relationship between internalization, automation and naturalization, processes that make it difficult to reflect on it, making it invisible and, therefore, preventing its eradication [15]. It is also evident that violence has a multifactorial origin that involves the victim, the aggressor and the social system [16]. In this context, it is recognized as having a multicausal origin, explained by familial, community, cultural, and biological factors [17]. For all the above reasons, we can affirm that violence is a complex phenomenon that has evolved as part of social systems, extending to contexts such as the school system.
Numerous studies support the importance of addressing school violence, as they show its negative impact on physical and psychological health, as well as affecting the social development of the children and young people involved, whether as victims, aggressors or witnesses [18,19,20]. In this sense, public education policy addresses school violence from the perspective that the harmful consequences for students’ mental health have a direct impact on their learning outcomes [21,22], which could be interpreted as a primarily instrumental approach. From another angle, the notion of the ‘reality of school violence’ proposes a structure in which internal levels are identified that hierarchically influence the phenomenon, as well as non-hierarchical external levels, such as the school system, educational policies, and the social context [23].
López et al. [24] address the phenomenon of school violence, paying special attention to contexts where individual factors such as age and gender are integrated with aspects of the classroom, such as the ‘classroom climate’, which, in turn, forms part of broader dimensions, such as the ‘school climate’. These factors are influenced by cultural variables, such as the socioeconomic level and the ethnocultural origin of individuals. In this way, school violence is considered a complex phenomenon, used as an illegitimate strategy to resolve conflicts within the school environment, which generates serious consequences [25,26].
Recent research indicates that emotional intelligence (EI) and emotional regulation (ER) play a major role in school violence and bullying. Greater EI and ER skills are associated with less victimization and aggression [27,28,29]. School-based interventions aimed at ER have shown positive effects on mental health and risk behaviors [30]. Psychoeducational programs can decrease alexithymia and improve empathy and ER among adolescents [31]. Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between ER and academic performance [32]. Likewise, character strengths such as gratitude, forgiveness, and self-regulation are associated with less involvement in situations of bullying [33]. However, some dimensions of EI can increase the perception of school violence [34].
Despite advances in the understanding of school violence and its impact on the well-being of students in the Chilean context, there is a gap in research regarding how emotional self-regulation influences the perception of school violence. Although this is a pilot study, the territory where the research is being conducted is relevant. In schools located in the Araucanía region, there is a critical gap in knowledge about how students’ emotional regulation relates to the dynamics of school violence. This is because the reality of La Araucanía—including schools—reflects a diversity that represents a sociocultural richness in the Mapuche context [35,36] that is not considered in studies or government policy proposals on school coexistence.
This pilot study was designed to explore the preliminary relationships between emotional self-regulation and school violence perception in the specific sociocultural context of La Araucanía, Chile. The pilot phase aims to: (1) validate the psychometric properties of the adapted instruments (CENVI-27 and EMSR-Q scales) in this regional context; (2) assess the methodological feasibility of the research design for detecting meaningful relationships between the variables of interest; and (3) establish preliminary effect sizes and correlational patterns that will inform the sample size calculations and methodological refinements for a future larger-scale study. Given the limited research on emotional self-regulation and school violence in Chilean educational contexts, particularly in regions with significant indigenous population diversity like La Araucanía, this pilot study provides essential foundational data to guide subsequent comprehensive research.
Therefore, the main objective of this study is to examine the relationship between negative emotional self-regulation of stress and the types of violence perceived in the school environment. To this end, it aims to: (1) evaluate the validity and reliability of the scales used through confirmatory factor analysis; and (2) analyze the influence of emotional self-regulation on the types of school violence through a structural equation model, where the following hypothesis is proposed:
H1:
The negative regulation of stress has a statistically significant influence on the perception of school violence.

2. Materials and Methods

This study was based on a research methodology used in psychology and education, of a cross-sectional nature with a comparative descriptive design, in accordance with the indications of León and Montero [37].

2.1. Participants

A total of 239 students aged between 9 and 15 years (M = 11.45; SD = 1.47) from a school in Temuco (Chile), ranging from fourth to eighth grade, took part. A total of 43.5% identified as male, 53.1% as female, 1.3% as non-binary, and 2.1% preferred not to answer. A total of 98.7% declared themselves to be Chilean and, in terms of ethnic origin, 16.3% identified as Mapuche, 39.3% said they had no ethnic origin, 41% said they did not know if they belonged to an indigenous people, and 3.3% did not answer the question.

2.2. Instruments

CENVI-27: The Types of Violence scale of the abbreviated version of the School Coexistence for Non-Violence (CENVI) questionnaire by Muñoz et al. [8] was used, which is a measurement model structured in two second-order factors: (1) types of violence, composed of five first-order factors with three indicators each; and (2) management of coexistence, organized into four first-order factors with three indicators each. All scales were reported to have a composite reliability greater than 0.8 [8]. The original version is a 4-point Likert scale; however, the present study chose to provide 6 response options, in order to have greater variability and options when choosing the method of estimation of the model. The response alternatives range from 1 = Never to 6 = Always. In the factors that measure types of violence, the higher the score, the greater the perception of violence, and in the factors on the management of coexistence, the higher the score, the greater the perception of actions favorable to school coexistence. The structure of the instrument is presented in Table 1.
EMSR-Q: The Negative Stress Self-Regulation scale belonging to the Emotion and Motivation Self-Regulation Questionnaire (EMSR-Q) by Alonso-Tapia et al. (2014) was used. The selected scale has 4 indicators. The instrument from which it is taken consists of 20 items organized into five factors that represent different types of self-messages or internal verbalizations that students use to regulate, appropriately or not, their positive and negative emotions, as well as their motivation in learning activities. Each factor is composed of 4 items that are measured using a 5-point Likert scale. These factors are grouped into two general styles of self-regulation: the style of self-regulation by avoidance and the style of self-regulation for learning, which allow for the evaluation of the emotional and motivational management of students in educational contexts. The study by Alonso-Tapia et al. [38] showed reliability coefficients measured in Cronbach’s Alpha from 0.77 to 0.84. It should be noted that the performance-oriented self-regulation scale belongs to both second-order factors. It is necessary to reiterate that the present study considers 1 of the 5 scales, called negative stress regulation, which will be integrated into the CENVI questionnaire for subsequent analysis. The structure of the EMSR-Q is shown in Table 2.

2.3. Procedure

The study was carried out within the framework of the research project of National Fund for Scientific and Technological Development (FONDECYT, for its acronym in Spanish) Regular 1191956: “Family and school education: Emotional socialization in contexts of social and cultural diversity,” reviewed and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Catholic University of Temuco (Chile). The school obtained parental consent and ensured that student participation was voluntary. The procedure was carried out on the school premises and the children were accompanied by their teachers during the questionnaire completion process. The instrument is hosted on a web platform, which begins with a description of the study, a notice of informed consent and confidentiality with details about the characteristics of the research, the instrument and the estimated time to respond. The voluntary nature of participation was made explicit, guaranteeing anonymity and data protection. The study was carried out in accordance with the international ethical guidelines established in the Declaration of Helsinki [39] and the Singapore Statement [40], as well as the Chilean regulations set out in Law 20,120 [41].

2.4. Analysis Plan

For the present study, a model is specified that integrates the Types of Violence scales of the CENVI-27 questionnaire and the Negative Self-Regulation of Stress scale of the EMSR-Q. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is performed with the aim of evaluating the proposed factor structure. Previously, the normality assumptions were analyzed using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, in order to identify whether or not the data presented a normal distribution.
In the CFA, using ULSMV estimation, the goodness-of-fit indices of the model are evaluated as X2/df, RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation), CFI (Comparative Fit Index), and TLI (Tucker–Lewis Index). Likewise, the factor loadings of the items in each of the latent variables are reviewed, expecting the indicators to have factor loadings greater than 0.5 and to be statistically significant [42]. Subsequently, the reliability of the factors is calculated using the composite reliability coefficient (CR) and the average extracted variance (AVE), following the criteria of Fornell and Larcker [43], where an AVE greater than 0.5 indicates good convergence and a CR greater than 0.7 suggests adequate internal reliability.
Given that high correlations were found between the Types of Violence factors, a second-order model is proposed to group these first-order scales under a general construct. This model allows for the analysis of the hierarchical factor structure and facilitates the interpretation of the results, although it implies disregarding the discriminant validity between factors [44].
Finally, a structural equation model (SEM) was implemented to evaluate the influence of the Negative Stress Self-Regulation scale on the second-order factor Types of Violence. The SEM analysis considered goodness-of-fit indices similar to CFA and the statistical significance of the gamma (γ) parameter to determine the magnitude and impact of structural relationships.
All analyses were performed using RStudio 2024.09.1 statistical software [45].

3. Results

The analyses carried out confirmed that the variables included in the study do not follow a normal distribution of the data according to the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test (p < 0.001). In the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), the model presented a good fit to the data: χ2/df = 1.47; RMSEA = 0.044; CFI = 0.969 and TLI = 0.964.
The results for reliability and convergent validity were satisfactory. The composite reliability (CR) had values between 0.754 and 0.870, while the average variance extracted (AVE) ranged between 0.506 and 0.691. The complete results are summarized in Table 3.
In the structural equation model (SEM), the goodness-of-fit indices also showed an adequate fit: χ2/df = 1.47, RMSEA = 0.044, CFI = 0.969, and TLI = 0.964. Finally, the SEM analysis showed a moderate and statistically significant positive correlation between the Negative Stress Self-Regulation Style (ANE) and the second-order construct Types of Violence (ToV): γ = 0.266; 95% CI: 0.124–0.409; p < 0.001 (Figure 1).

4. Discussion

The results obtained in this study can be organized into two main blocks: (a) from the methodological analysis of results to support a theoretical model, and (b) from the contributions to expand and challenge the current understanding of the role that coexistence policies play in adolescent mental health.

4.1. Analysis of Results for a Theoretical Model

Methodological Analysis of Results to Support a Theoretical Model

The results obtained in this study are supported by a solid methodological framework that guarantees the validity and reliability of the findings. The analysis carried out showed an adequate fit of the model to the data, which supports the theoretical structure used to evaluate the types of violence and emotional self-regulation. The internal consistency and convergence of the instruments applied were satisfactory, which reinforces the robustness of the results. This level of methodological rigor provides a reliable basis for interpreting the significant relationships observed between emotional self-regulation styles and types of school violence, which is essential for discussing their implications and proposing possible interventions in the educational setting. This is particularly relevant given the ‘pilot study’ nature of this research, which will enable relevant decisions to be made regarding large-scale implementation.
The most relevant finding of this study is the significant relationship between the negative stress self-regulation style and the types of school violence. This result suggests that students with an emotional self-regulation style characterized by the avoidance of negative emotions may be more likely to perceive or experience various forms of violence in the school environment. This finding is consistent with what was reported by Gonzales and Molero [46]. Emotional self-regulation, understood as the ability to manage one’s emotions in response to stressful situations, is a relevant factor in conflict resolution and social interactions [8]. In the context of school violence, a study by Guil and Mestre [47] suggested that students who use avoidance as a self-regulation strategy may be less effective in dealing with conflicts appropriately, which contributes to the perpetuation of violent situations. These findings highlight the importance of emotional self-regulation in the perception of school violence and suggest the need to explore interventions that promote more adaptive self-regulation strategies [48].
In this sense, research shows the importance of emotional regulation in school violence and bullying. Maladaptive emotional regulation strategies, especially avoidance and repression, are associated with increased aggression and victimization [49]. Victims of bullying tend to show greater emotional attention, but less emotional clarity and regulation [27]. Dysfunctional emotional regulation was shown to mediate the relationship between social alienation and participation in bullying [50,51]. Furthermore, the long-term effects of bullying experiences on emotional regulation persist in adulthood [52]. School-based interventions aimed at improving emotional intelligence and emotional regulation skills have shown encouraging results in reducing victimization and improving mental health [28]. These interventions, generally well received by students, show small to moderate effects, with more marked effects in high-risk populations [30].
It is possible to argue that the findings of this pilot study highlight the importance of emotional self-regulation in the context of school violence, particularly in relation to how students with a negative stress regulation style—characterized by emotional avoidance—perceive violence in school settings. This is consistent with the findings of Addai et al. [53], who also emphasized the role of emotional regulation in students’ experiences of school violence.
This raises a need for educational interventions that promote the development of emotional skills. Implementing programs that improve emotional self-regulation could be an effective strategy to reduce school violence and improve interactions between students. In this regard, several studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of universal social–emotional learning programs that can significantly improve students’ skills, attitudes, behaviors, and academic performance [54,55]. For example, interventions based on mindfulness and cognitive behavioral approaches have shown potential for increasing emotional awareness and reducing negative behaviors [56,57]. Furthermore, there is evidence that the explicit teaching of social and emotional skills, contextual support, and the integration of these interventions into the daily routines of the school are essential to improve their effectiveness [58]. In general, the evidence supports the implementation of tiered school programs of social and emotional learning to promote self-regulation and social competence among students.
Although it has been implicitly pointed out, it is necessary to clearly mention the fulfillment of the hypothesis “H1: The negative regulation of stress has a statistically significant influence on the perception of school violence”, given that a moderate influence with statistical significance was found at the 0.01 level.
Given all the points discussed above, it is desirable that the development of prevention and intervention programs be integrated into educational policies to promote socio-emotional education, which would help prevent school violence and foster positive mental health among adolescents within the school system.
Such initiatives would generate positive externalities that extend beyond the school context, contributing to healthier future work and social environments. By strengthening adolescents’ socio-emotional skills and reducing exposure to violence during their formative years, these policies can foster more collaborative, respectful, and emotionally intelligent individuals in broader society [59].
While the findings of this pilot study provide valuable insights into the relationship between emotional self-regulation and school violence perception, several critical considerations must be acknowledged. The moderate correlation observed may be influenced by unmeasured contextual variables that could act as moderators or mediators in this relationship. For instance, family dynamics, peer group influences, and individual resilience factors may significantly alter how students with avoidance-style emotional regulation interpret and respond to potentially violent situations. Additionally, the multicultural educational environment of La Araucanía presents unique dynamics where traditional conflict resolution approaches may interact with contemporary school-based interventions in complex ways. The cross-sectional nature of our findings also raises questions about directionality—whether poor emotional regulation leads to increased violence perception, or whether exposure to violence shapes maladaptive emotional regulation strategies. Furthermore, the self-report methodology may introduce response biases, particularly among students who tend to avoid negative emotions, potentially inflating their reported perceptions of violence as a defensive cognitive mechanism. These considerations highlight the need for more nuanced research approaches that can disentangle these complex interactions and provide a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under study.
It is also relevant to discuss contributions to expand and challenge the current understanding of the role that coexistence policies play in adolescent mental health. In this regard, the distinctive value of this study lies in its relational approach. While much of the literature has focused on describing the individual consequences of poor emotional regulation, the results presented here suggest that the avoidant style should not be understood solely as a personal deficit but as an indicator of fractures in the relational fabric within the educational environment. In this sense, the proposal by Aedo et al. [60] is reinforced, who argue that autonomy in adolescents may take on a dysfunctional character when developed as a compensatory reaction to the absence of significant and secure bonds. Emotional avoidance, then, would be a coping strategy, as well as a way to manage the affective disconnection imposed by school settings that prioritize academic performance or disciplined behavior over emotional well-being.
This critical interpretation challenges the dominant paradigm in public policies, which tends to individualize emotional adaptation responsibilities. Policies such as Chile’s National School Coexistence Policy (PNCE 2024–2030), although incorporating language oriented toward the right to well-being and democratic participation, still operate in many cases under a model of individual competencies, expecting students to “manage their emotions” without adequate consideration of the relational context in which such management occurs [61].
This pattern is not exclusive to Chile. Various reports by the OECD [62] and UNICEF [63] have noted that in many Latin American and European countries, school mental health policies emphasize socioemotional competencies at the individual level without modifying the structural and cultural conditions that shape adolescents’ psychosocial well-being. For example, in Spain, although socioemotional learning programs are integrated into education law, recent evaluations suggest their impact is limited if not accompanied by changes in school climate and community involvement [64]. This reinforces the need for comprehensive and contextualized policy approaches that transcend the individualistic framework.
The agreement between this study’s findings and previous work in school psychology and adolescent mental health reinforces their validity but also opens new avenues for problematization. For example, studies by Estévez et al. [27] and Bäker et al. [50] have shown that adolescents with emotional regulation difficulties—especially those with high emotional attention but low clarity and control—are more vulnerable to bullying and victimization dynamics. However, in those studies, emotional regulation is usually analyzed as a mediating or moderating variable, whereas in our research it takes a central explanatory role, suggesting that the avoidant style acts as a lens through which the subjective experience of violence is shaped.
This interpretative shift is relevant for educational policies because it questions the idea that teaching coping or emotional self-regulation skills alone is sufficient. León del Barco et al. [28] and Pedrini et al. [30] have demonstrated that socioemotional learning programs positively impact school mental health but also warn that their effectiveness depends on contextual factors such as classroom climate, quality of interpersonal relationships, and teaching team leadership style. In other words, without an emotionally nourishing and relationally safe environment, even the best interventions can lose effectiveness or be misunderstood by students themselves.
Moreover, the recent literature emphasizes the need for comprehensive and intersectoral approaches. Cipriano et al. [54] and Pickerell et al. [57] recommend that emotional regulation programs be articulated with broader frameworks of relational justice, including recognizing student voices, repairing damaged bonds, and the affective training of responsible adults. This approach aligns with the proposal of “relational reparative ecosystems,” as outlined in this study’s results, implying a structural transformation of the educational system beyond conventional pedagogical strategies.
Internationally, policy examples addressing these dimensions include the “Whole School Approach” implemented in countries such as Australia and Canada, promoting active participation of the entire educational community to build safe and emotionally healthy school environments [65,66]. These experiences show that comprehensive educational policies, including continuous teacher training, student participation, and emotional repair protocols, can significantly reduce perceived school violence and improve adolescent mental health.
The findings of this research also allow proposing a new criterion for evaluating public education policies: the quality of relational bonds. This concept—rarely incorporated until now in coexistence policy success indicators—enables addressing phenomena such as emotional avoidance from a prevention and institutional care logic, not just from individual remediation. In this sense, the study aligns with emerging proposals in the region, such as Marín-Gutiérrez and Caqueo-Urízar [67], who argue that emotional well-being in school contexts must be understood as a collective and relational right, not merely as an individual emotional performance goal.
Thus, the implications of our findings extend beyond student psychology to the very design of public policies. The evidence suggests that avoidant emotional self-regulation styles can be interpreted as early indicators of relational suffering within schools, representing an opportunity for systemic intervention. Far from considering these strategies as simple individual dysfunctions, we propose recognizing them as adaptive manifestations in contexts of low emotional containment, invisibilization of distress, or excessive normative demands.
Based on these findings, it is possible to propose a series of recommendations aimed at transforming educational policies and institutional practices to more effectively address adolescent mental health in school contexts. First, it is essential that school systems incorporate early socioemotional assessments that, along with detecting individual deficits, identify emotional avoidance patterns as relational risk indicators. This implies shifting from an individual diagnosis-centered approach to one that considers the quality of school interactions as a critical variable in the genesis of emotional distress.
A concrete recommendation for policymakers is to review and expand diagnostic instruments used by the educational system, especially those linked to the National School Coexistence Plan. These instruments should include scales for detecting emotional self-regulation styles, such as those used in this study, and integrate them into early warning systems for school psychosocial teams. Instead of treating avoidance as a symptom to be corrected through individual workshops, it could be considered a sign of deterioration in the school’s relational ecosystem.
Similarly, it is advisable to reformulate current success indicators for coexistence policies. Although these include variables such as reduced cases of physical or verbal violence, they rarely consider the subjective perception of violence or emotional insecurity as measurable outcomes. Our findings suggest that these perceptions, mediated by emotional regulation style, are fundamental to anticipating the deterioration of school coexistence. Consequently, educational policies could be complemented with indicators of “perceived emotional safety” or “quality of relational bonds,” assessed from students’ own perspectives.
Pedagogically, management and teaching teams can play a key role in creating what we have termed “relational reparative ecosystems.” These spaces should not be limited to extracurricular or therapeutic moments but integrated into daily classroom life. For example, the systematic incorporation of practices such as restorative dialog circles, peer mentoring, and structured emotional listening moments—especially aimed at students with avoidant styles—is recommended. These experiences should be designed to rebuild secure and predictable bonds, offering adolescents opportunities to reframe their emotions in contexts of containment and validation.
Finally, all these proposals must be implemented under a paradigm recognizing that emotional self-regulation cannot be promoted in isolation but in relation to the structural, relational, and cultural conditions of the educational system. As Bierman and Sanders (2021) argue, teaching socioemotional skills is only effective when combined with a school culture that explicitly values mutual care, collaboration, and bond repair. Within this framework, the Coexistence and Mental Health Axis of MINEDUC’s Educational Reactivation Plan must move from a logic focused on individual competencies toward a relationally oriented policy prioritizing structural and collective interventions.

5. Conclusions

The present study highlights the importance of emotional self-regulation, especially in students with an emotional avoidance style, as a relevant factor in school violence. The findings challenge traditional conceptualizations by revealing that avoidance patterns may reflect systemic relational failures rather than individual deficits. The results suggest that these students may be more exposed to violent situations, indicating that educational policies must shift from competency-focused interventions toward relational restoration approaches. This has direct implications for policy frameworks like Chile’s PNCE 2024–2030, requiring fundamental reconsideration of evaluation metrics and intervention strategies.
Social–emotional learning programs, particularly those based on mindfulness and cognitive behavioral approaches, have been shown to be effective in improving emotional regulation and reducing negative behaviors. However, their implementation requires embedding within comprehensive relational frameworks that address the underlying social infrastructure of educational communities. This suggests that implementing these approaches in school routines could be effective in reducing school violence and improving interactions between students.
From this perspective, the study challenges prevailing conceptions in public policies that address emotional self-regulation as an individual and decontextualized competence. Instead, it proposes understanding avoidant patterns such as adaptation strategies to emotionally insecure or neglectful school environments, which requires reconceptualizing pedagogical and coexistence interventions. Rather than insisting on individual emotional skills training, it becomes urgent to design policies aimed at repairing bonds and creating emotionally nurturing educational communities.
Furthermore, the study suggests that current policies, such as the National School Coexistence Policy (PNCE 2024–2030), while recognizing the socioemotional dimension of learning, still operate under individualistic assumptions. Our results reveal that a relational approach could not only increase the effectiveness of these policies but also prevent the chronicity of emotional distress in adolescents by addressing the structural and relational causes of suffering. This includes reviewing pedagogical practices, institutional protocols, evaluation frameworks, and teacher training.
Based on the findings, it is recommended to advance toward intervention models that integrate the detection of avoidant emotional self-regulation styles as a regular component of early warning systems and consider the perception of school violence as a valid indicator of psychosocial risk. It is also recommended to strengthen reparative school spaces, systematize restorative practices, and prioritize the quality of relational bonds as a success criterion in coexistence and school mental health public policies.
The main limitations of the present research include the sample size, which, although representative of a specific context, may not be generalizable to other regions or populations. Furthermore, as it is a cross-sectional study, it does not allow definitive causal relationships to be established between emotional self-regulation and school violence. The directionality question—whether regulation difficulties lead to violence perception or vice versa—remains unresolved with significant policy implications. Another limitation is that it focused solely on negative stress self-regulation, without considering other dimensions of emotional self-regulation that could influence the results. Finally, the study does not address broader contextual factors, such as the family or community environment, which could also impact the relationship between emotional self-regulation and school violence.
All these limitations could be addressed in a subsequent phase of the research, considering that this is a pilot study that lays the groundwork for a more in-depth exploration of the findings and informs evidence-based policy reform for adolescent mental health in school contexts.
This study has contributed to the understanding of adolescent mental health from an integrative approach combining individual psychology with educational sociology and public policy. The results call for a paradigmatic reorientation toward school mental health policies that recognize emotional self-regulation as a relational and contextual phenomenon and incorporate this perspective in the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of educational interventions. This broadened vision is fundamental to guaranteeing the right to comprehensive well-being for adolescents in 21st century schools.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/soc15080221/s1, The original contributions presented in this study are included in the supplementary material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.M.-T. and E.R.-M.; methodology, F.M.-T. and E.R.-M.; software, F.M.-T. and E.R.-M.; validation, F.M.-T. and E.R.-M.; formal analysis, F.M.-T. and E.R.-M.; investigation, F.M.-T. and E.R.-M.; resources, F.M.-T. and E.R.-M.; data curation, F.M.-T. and E.R.-M.; writing—original draft preparation, F.M.-T. and E.R.-M.; writing—review and editing, F.M.-T. and E.R.-M.; visualization, F.M.-T. and E.R.-M.; supervision, F.M.-T. and E.R.-M.; project administration, F.M.-T. and E.R.-M.; funding acquisition, F.M.-T. and E.R.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was funded by the Fondecyt Regular project 1231178 “Ambivalencia sociocultural y educativa en contexto mapuche: tensión epistémica de docentes con estudiantes y padres de familia.” It also received funding from the Research Department of the Universidad Católica de Temuco (Chile).

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and Declaration of Singapur. Was reviewed and authorized by the Research Ethics Committee of the Universidad Católica de Temuco (Chile), number of authorization 18/19.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent and informed assent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Data available at https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/FFHWIR and in the Supplementary Materials.

Acknowledgments

To the Directorate of Research of the Universidad Católica de Temuco, Chile. To the Research Vice-Rectory of Universidad Mayor (Chile) and to the Directorate of Graduate Studies in Education of the Universidad Mayor, Temuco.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Societies 15 00221 g001
Figure 1. Structural equation model with standardized estimates. Source: Prepared by the authors. Negative stress self-regulation (NSSR); Types of violence (ToV); Verbal violence (VV); Physical violence (PF); Social exclusion (SE); Digital violence (DV); Teacher violence (TV).
Figure 1. Structural equation model with standardized estimates. Source: Prepared by the authors. Negative stress self-regulation (NSSR); Types of violence (ToV); Verbal violence (VV); Physical violence (PF); Social exclusion (SE); Digital violence (DV); Teacher violence (TV).
Societies 15 00221 g001
Table 1. Structure of the abbreviated version of the CENVI questionnaire.
Table 1. Structure of the abbreviated version of the CENVI questionnaire.
Second OrderFirst Order
Types of violence (ToV)Verbal violence (VV)
Physical violence (PV)
Social exclusion (SE)
Digital violence (DV)
Teacher violence (TV)
Coexistence management (CM)Reflection (RE)
Education (ED)
Assurance (AS)
Participation (PA)
Source: Muñoz-Troncoso et al. [8].
Table 2. Structure of the EMSR-Q.
Table 2. Structure of the EMSR-Q.
Second OrderFirst Order
Learning self-regulation style (LSR)
Avoidance self-regulation style (ASR)		Positive motivation self-regulation (PMSR)
Process oriented self-regulation (POSR)
Negative stress self-regulation (NSSR) *
Avoidance oriented self-regulation (AOSR)
Performance oriented self-regulation (POSR)
Source: Alonso-Tapia et al. [38]. * Scale selected for the present study.
Table 3. Validity and reliability indices.
Table 3. Validity and reliability indices.
Factor Loadings
FactorMinMaxAVECR
Verbal violence (VV)0.7390.8370.5990.817
Physical violence (PF)0.6280.7530.5060.753
Social exclusion (SE)0.6640.8550.6220.830
Digital violence (DV)0.8120.8520.6910.870
Teacher violence (TV)0.7530.8480.6420.843
Negative stress self-regulation (NSSR)0.6110.8130.5240.813
Source: Prepared by the authors.
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Muñoz-Troncoso, F.; Riquelme-Mella, E. Relationship Between Emotional Self-Regulation and the Perception of School Violence: Pilot Study in La Araucanía, Chile. Societies 2025, 15, 221. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15080221

AMA Style

Muñoz-Troncoso F, Riquelme-Mella E. Relationship Between Emotional Self-Regulation and the Perception of School Violence: Pilot Study in La Araucanía, Chile. Societies. 2025; 15(8):221. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15080221

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Muñoz-Troncoso, Flavio, and Enrique Riquelme-Mella. 2025. "Relationship Between Emotional Self-Regulation and the Perception of School Violence: Pilot Study in La Araucanía, Chile" Societies 15, no. 8: 221. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15080221

APA Style

Muñoz-Troncoso, F., & Riquelme-Mella, E. (2025). Relationship Between Emotional Self-Regulation and the Perception of School Violence: Pilot Study in La Araucanía, Chile. Societies, 15(8), 221. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15080221

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