Treatment Landscape of Nonmetastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: A Window of Opportunity
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Biochemical progression: three consecutive increases in PSA, 1 week apart, resulting in two increases of 50% over PSA nadir, with PSA > 2 ng/mL.
- Radiological progression: appearance of new lesions, either two or more new bone lesions in the bone scan, or a new soft tissue lesion assessable using RECIST 1.1 criteria.
2. Pivotal Clinical Trials
3. Discussion
4. Special Situations and Drug Interactions
4.1. Liver Insufficiency
4.2. Renal Insufficiency
4.3. Drug Interactions
4.3.1. Effect of Exposure on Other Drugs
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- Drug metabolizing enzymes: Apalutamide is a strong inducer of CYP3A4 and CYP2C19, and a weak inducer of CYP2C9, while enzalutamide is a strong inducer of CYP3A4 and a moderate inducer of CYP2C9 and CYP2C19. Darolutamide is a mild inducer of CYP3A4. Concomitant use of apalutamide/enzalutamide with medicinal products metabolized by CYP3A4, CYP2C19, and CYP2C9, or medicinal products that are substrates of UGT (glucuronic conjugating enzyme) may reduce the exposure of these drugs. Co-administration of apalutamide and enzalutamide with warfarin and coumarin-type anticoagulants should be avoided. In the event that such administration is necessary, additional controls of the International Normalized Ratio (INR) should be performed (Table 4).
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- Drug transporters: Apalutamide is a weak inducer of the gp protein (P-gp), the breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), and the organic anion transporter polypeptide 1B1 (OATP1B1). Therefore, concomitant use of drugs that are substrates for these proteins can reduce exposure to them. In vitro data indicate that enzalutamide may be an inhibitor of P-gp and the inhibition of BCRP and MRP2 cannot be ruled out. Theoretically, induction of these transporters is also possible, and their net effect is currently unknown. Darolutamide is an inhibitor of BCRP and OATP 1B1 and 1B3, so co-administration with certain drugs can increase the plasma concentrations of these substrates.
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- Medications that prolong the QT interval: Because androgen deprivation therapy can prolong the QT interval, concomitant use with substances that prolong the QT interval or that may induce Torsade de Pointes (class IA or III antiarrhythmic drugs and antipsychotics) should be carefully evaluated.
4.3.2. Effect of Other Drugs on Exposure
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- Medicines that inhibit CYP2C8 and CYP3A4: CYP2C8 and CYP3A4 play a role in the elimination of apalutamide and enzalutamide and in the formation of their active metabolites. No initial dose adjustment is necessary when apalutamide is co-administered with a strong CYP2C8 inhibitor or with a strong CYP3A4 inhibitor. During treatment with enzalutamide, it is recommended to avoid the use of strong CYP2C8 inhibitors, although no dose adjustment is necessary with concomitant CYP3A4 inhibitors. The use of darolutamide with a combination of a P-gp inhibitor and a strong CYP3A4 inhibitor increases drug exposure, thereby increasing the risk of adverse reactions (Table 5).
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- Medicines that induce CYP3A4, CYP2C8, or P-gp: Inducers of CYP3A4 or CYP2C8 have no clinically relevant effects on the pharmacokinetics of apalutamide and enzalutamide. The use of strong CYP3A4 and P-gp inducers with darolutamide may decrease their plasma concentration and is not recommended.
5. Future Directions
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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SPARTAN | PROSPER | ARAMIS | |
---|---|---|---|
Inclusion Criteria | Absence of metastases (CT scan/bone scintigraphy) Baseline PSA ≥ 2 ng/mL. PSA progression. PSADT ≤ 10. | ||
N1 allowed | Only N0 | N1 allowed | |
Stratification Factors | PSADT ≥ 6 m or PSADT < 6 m Use of bone targeting agents | ||
Presence of nodal metastases | - | - | |
Primary Endpoints | Metastasis-free survival | ||
Key Secondary Endpoints | Time to PSA progression, quality of life, overall survival | ||
T to symp prog, T to SSE, PFS, T to chemo, PFS2 | T to pain prog, PFS | T to pain prog, T to SSE | |
Follow-up | Imaging: every 16 weeks | ||
Toxicity: every 4 weeks (C1-6), 8 weeks (7–13), 16 weeks (after C13) | Toxicity: every 16 weeks | Toxicity: every 16 weeks | |
Pt/Physician blinded to PSA | Yes | Yes | No |
SPARTAN A vs. P n = 806 n = 401 | PROSPER E vs. P n = 933 n = 468 | ARAMIS D vs. P n = 955 n = 554 | |
---|---|---|---|
Age median (yr) | 74 vs. 74 | 74 vs. 73 | 74 vs. 74 |
PSADT median (mo) PSADT <6 mo (%) | 4.4 vs. 4.5 71.5 vs. 70.8 | 3.8 vs. 3.6 77 vs. 77 | 4.4 vs. 4.7 70 vs. 67 |
Nodal disease (%) | 16.5 vs. 16.2 | - | 17 vs. 29 |
Performance status 0 (%) | 77.3 vs. 77.8 | 80 vs. 82 | 68 vs. 71 |
Bone targeted therapy (%) | 10.2 vs. 9.7 | 11 vs. 10 | 3 vs. 6 |
SPARTAN [10,29] (n = 1207) A vs. P | PROSPER [11,30] (n = 1401) E vs. P | ARAMIS [9,31] (n = 1509) D vs. P | |
---|---|---|---|
Metastases free survival (MFS) (mo) Primary objective | 40.5 vs. 16.2 HR 0.28 95% CI (0.23–0.35) p < 0.001 | 36.6 vs. 14.7 HR 0.29 95% CI (0.24–0.35) p < 0.001 | 40.4 vs. 18.4 HR 0.41 95% CI (0.34–0.50) p < 0.001 |
Overall survival (OS) (mo) Secondary objective | 73.9 vs. 59.9 HR 0.78 95% CI (0.64–0.96) p = 0.016 | 67 vs. 56.3 HR 0.73 95% CI (0.61–0.89) p = 0.001 | Alive 3 years 83% vs. 77% HR 0.69 95% CI (0.53–0.88) p = 0.003 |
Time to beginning of QT (mo) Secondary objective | NR vs. NR HR 0.63 95% CI (0.49–0.81) p = 0.0002 | - | No QT in 3 years 83% vs. 75% HR 0.58 95% CI (0.44–0.76) p < 0.001 |
PSA progression free survival (mo) Secondary objective in PROSPER Exploratory objective in SPARTAN and ARAMIS | 40.5 vs. 3.7 HR 0.07 95% CI (0.06–0.09) p < 0.0001 | 37.2 vs. 3.9 HR 0.07 95% CI (0.05–0.08) p < 0.001 | 33.2 vs. 7.3 HR 0.13 95% CI (0.11–0.16) p < 0.001 |
Time to 1st skeletal event Secondary objective | - | - | No EE in 3 years 96% vs. 92% HR 0.48 95% CI (0.29–0.82 p = 0.005 |
Time to pain progression (mo) Secondary objective | - | - | 40.3 vs. 25.4 HR 0.65 95% CI (0.53–0.79) p < 0.001 |
Time to next antineoplastic therapy (mo) Secondary objective in PROSPER Exploratory objective in ARAMIS | - | 66.7 vs. 19.1 HR 0.29 95% CI (0.25–0.35) p < 0.001 | NR vs. NR HR 0.33 95% CI (0.23–0.47) p < 0.001 |
Second progression free survival Exploratory objective | 55.6 vs. 41.2 HR 0.55 95% CI (0.46–0.66) p < 0.0001 | - | - |
Time to symptomatic progression Secondary objective | NR vs. NR HR 0.57 95% CI (0.44–0.73) p < 0.0001 | - | - |
Progression free survival (mo) Secondary objective in SPARTAN Exploratory objective in ARAMIS | 40.5 vs. 14.7 HR 0.29 95% CI (0.24–0.36) p < 0.001 | - | 36.8 vs. 14.8 HR 0.38 95% CI (0.32–0.45) p < 0.001 |
Substrates | Apalutamide | Enzalutamide | Darolutamide |
---|---|---|---|
CYP3A4 (fentanyl, oxycodone, rivaroxavan, amlodipine, sinvastatin, tamsulosin, solifenacin, alprazolam) | _ | ||
CYP2C9 (phenytoin, warfarin, acenocoumarol, celecoxib, losartan, fluvastatin) | _ | ||
CYP2C19 (omeprazole, lansoprazole, propanolol, diazepam) | _ | ||
UGT (levothyroxine, valproic acid) | _ | ||
P-gp (colchicine, dabigatran, etexilate, digoxin) | _ | ||
BCRP (furosemide, fluvastatin, atorvastatin, rosuvastatin) | |||
OATP1B1 (lapatinib, methotrexate, repaglinide) | NO |
Inhibitors/Inducers | Apalutamide | Enzalutamide | Darolutamide |
---|---|---|---|
CYP3A4-inhibitor (ketoconazole, ritonavir, clarithromycin) | _ | ||
CYP32C8-inhibitor (gemfibrozil, clopidogrel) | _ | ||
CYP3A4-inductor (rifampicin) | _ | _ | |
P-gp-inductor (rifampicin, phenobarbital, phenytoin) | _ | _ |
Study | Official Name | Type | State | Ending Stipulated Date |
---|---|---|---|---|
NCT 04108208 | A Multicenter, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Phase IV Study of Apalutamide in Chinese Subjects with Non-Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer (NM-CRPC) | Phase IV | Recruiting | April 2027 |
NCT03800784 | Study of 18F-DCFPyL PET/CT, for Detection of Radiological Progression in Patients with Metastatic (M+) and Non-metastatic (M0) Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer Receiving Standard Androgen Receptor Targeted Treatment | Phase II–III | Recruiting | January 2024 |
NCT02685397 | Management of Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer with Oligometastases (PCS IX) | Phase II–III | Recruiting | April 2025 |
NCT04070209 | The Role of Therapeutic Layering of Stereotactic Body Radiotherapy on Darolutamide in the Management of Oligoprogressive Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: A Pilot Phase II Trial | Phase II | Recruiting | November 2027 |
NCT03503344 | Apalutamide With or Without Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy in Treating Participants with Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer (PILLAR) | Phase II | Recruiting | December 2024 |
NCT04319783 | Darolutamide + Consolidation Radiotherapy in Advanced Prostate Cancer Detected by PSMA | Phase II | Recruiting pending | June 2026 |
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López-Campos, F.; Conde-Moreno, A.; Barrado Los Arcos, M.; Gómez-Caamaño, A.; García-Gómez, R.; Hervás Morón, A. Treatment Landscape of Nonmetastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: A Window of Opportunity. J. Pers. Med. 2021, 11, 1190. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm11111190
López-Campos F, Conde-Moreno A, Barrado Los Arcos M, Gómez-Caamaño A, García-Gómez R, Hervás Morón A. Treatment Landscape of Nonmetastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: A Window of Opportunity. Journal of Personalized Medicine. 2021; 11(11):1190. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm11111190
Chicago/Turabian StyleLópez-Campos, Fernando, Antonio Conde-Moreno, Marta Barrado Los Arcos, Antonio Gómez-Caamaño, Raquel García-Gómez, and Asunción Hervás Morón. 2021. "Treatment Landscape of Nonmetastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: A Window of Opportunity" Journal of Personalized Medicine 11, no. 11: 1190. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm11111190