Figure 1.
(A) Linear variables used in this study: 1, anterior cranial base (ACB); 2, posterior cranial base (PCB); 3, ramus height (RH); 4, mandibular body length (MBL); 5, anterior facial height (AFH); 6, posterior facial height (PFH); 7, point A to N perpendicular (A to N-perp); 8, pogonion to N perpendicular (Pog to N-perp); 9, overjet (OJ); 10, overbite (OB); 11, dorsum of the tongue to palatal plane (Tp to PP); 12, hyoidale to mandibular plane (H to MP); 13, body to anterior cranial base ratio (body to ACB); 14, facial height ratio (FHR). (B) angular variables used in this study: 1, SNA angle; 2, SNB angle; 3, ANB angle; 4, saddle angle; 5, articular angle; 6, gonial angle; 7, Björk sum; 8, Frankfort horizontal plane to mandibular plane angle (FMA); 9, upper incisor to FH angle (U1 to FH); 10, incisor mandibular plane angle (IMPA); 11, inter-incisor angle (IIA); 12, Y-axis to SN angle; 13, AB plane to mandibular plane angle (AB to MP); 14, palatal plane to Frankfort horizontal plane angle (PP to FH).
Figure 1.
(A) Linear variables used in this study: 1, anterior cranial base (ACB); 2, posterior cranial base (PCB); 3, ramus height (RH); 4, mandibular body length (MBL); 5, anterior facial height (AFH); 6, posterior facial height (PFH); 7, point A to N perpendicular (A to N-perp); 8, pogonion to N perpendicular (Pog to N-perp); 9, overjet (OJ); 10, overbite (OB); 11, dorsum of the tongue to palatal plane (Tp to PP); 12, hyoidale to mandibular plane (H to MP); 13, body to anterior cranial base ratio (body to ACB); 14, facial height ratio (FHR). (B) angular variables used in this study: 1, SNA angle; 2, SNB angle; 3, ANB angle; 4, saddle angle; 5, articular angle; 6, gonial angle; 7, Björk sum; 8, Frankfort horizontal plane to mandibular plane angle (FMA); 9, upper incisor to FH angle (U1 to FH); 10, incisor mandibular plane angle (IMPA); 11, inter-incisor angle (IIA); 12, Y-axis to SN angle; 13, AB plane to mandibular plane angle (AB to MP); 14, palatal plane to Frankfort horizontal plane angle (PP to FH).
Figure 2.
(A) Iowa Oral Performance Instrument (IOPI) device. (B) Position of the bulb (TAP, anterior tongue pressure). (C) Position of the bulb (TPP, posterior tongue pressure).
Figure 3.
Position of the bulb (LP, lip pressure).
Figure 4.
Sex-based pressure differences; (A) TAP, anterior tongue pressure. (B) TPP, posterior tongue pressure. (C) LP, lip pressure.
Figure 5.
Comparison of skeletal profilograms between the high group (black line) and the low group (red line); (A) TAP, anterior tongue pressure. (B) TPP, posterior tongue pressure. (C) LP, lip pressure.
Table 1.
Sex and age distribution of patients with each group.
| TAP (kPa) | TPP (kPa) | LP (kPa) |
---|
Low (<42) | High (≥42) | Low (<40) | High (≥40) | Low (<24) | High (≥24) |
---|
Sex | Male | 45 | 59 | 46 | 58 | 57 | 47 |
Female | 55 | 35 | 57 | 33 | 62 | 28 |
Age (y) | Mean | 23.2 | 24.2 | 22.6 | 24.8 | 23.3 | 24.2 |
SD | 6.9 | 7.7 | 6.6 | 7.8 | 7.2 | 7.4 |
Table 2.
Correlation coefficients between cephalometric variables and perioral muscle force (TAP, TPP, LP) †.
| TAP | TPP | LP |
---|
Cephalometric Variable | Correlation | p-Value | Correlation | p-Value | Correlation | p-Value |
---|
ACB | 0.151 | 0.035 * | NS | NS | NS | NS |
PCB | 0.277 | <0.001 *** | 0.229 | 0.001 ** | NS | NS |
RH | 0.205 | 0.004 ** | 0.147 | 0.041 * | NS | NS |
PFH | 0.251 | <0.001 *** | 0.201 | 0.005 ** | NS | NS |
Pog to N-perp | 0.147 | 0.04 * | NS | NS | NS | NS |
OJ | −0.202 | 0.005 ** | NS | NS | NS | NS |
FHR | 0.183 | 0.011 * | 0.19 | 0.008 ** | NS | NS |
SNA | NS | NS | 0.149 | 0.038 * | NS | NS |
SNB | 0.161 | 0.025 * | 0.16 | 0.026 * | NS | NS |
ANB | −0.151 | 0.035 * | NS | NS | NS | NS |
Articular angle | −0.151 | 0.036 * | NS | NS | NS | NS |
Björk sum | −0.153 | 0.033 * | −0.174 | 0.015 * | NS | NS |
U1 to FH | NS | NS | NS | NS | −0.231 | 0.001 ** |
IIA | NS | NS | NS | NS | 0.211 | 0.003 ** |
Y axis to SN | −0.146 | 0.042 * | −0.146 | 0.042 * | NS | NS |
Table 3.
Comparisons of cephalometric variables between TAP_low and TAP_high groups (n = 194). *
Cephalometric Variables | TAP_Low | TAP_High | Significance | Comparisons |
---|
Articular angle (°) | 148.2 ± 8.0 | 146.0 ± 7.4 | 0.022 * | TAP_low > TAP_high |
PCB (mm) | 38.6 ± 3.6 | 39.7 ± 4.2 | 0.027 * | TAP_low < TAP_high |
OJ (mm) | 2.5 ± 4.0 | 1.3 ± 3.8 | 0.016 * | TAP_low > TAP_high |
H to MP (mm) | 13.0 ± 5.6 | 14.7 ± 5.9 | 0.019 * | TAP_low < TAP_high |
Table 4.
Comparisons of cephalometric variables between TPP_low and TPP_high groups (n = 194). *
Cephalometric Variables | TPP_Low | TPP_High | Significance | Comparisons |
---|
Björk sum (°) | 398.2 ± 7.4 | 396.4 ± 7.2 | 0.045 * | TPP_low > TPP_high |
PCB (mm) | 38.5 ± 3.6 | 39.8 ± 4.3 | 0.011 * | TPP_low < TPP_high |
PFH (mm) | 87.2 ± 8.8 | 90.2 ± 9.0 | 0.010 * | TPP_low < TPP_high |
FHR | 63.9 ± 5.6 | 65.6 ± 5.9 | 0.021 * | TPP_low < TPP_high |
RH (mm) | 52.5 ± 7.1 | 54.5 ± 7.7 | 0.031 * | TPP_low < TPP_high |
Table 5.
Comparisons of cephalometric variables between LP_low and LP_high groups (n = 194). *
Cephalometric Variables | LP_Low | LP_High | Significance | Comparisons |
---|
IIA (°) | 125.3 ± 11.9 | 128.8 ± 13.7 | 0.034 * | LP_low < LP_high |
PCB (mm) | 38.7 ± 3.8 | 39.7 ± 4.1 | 0.045 * | LP_low < LP_high |
OJ (mm) | 2.4 ± 3.9 | 1.1 ± 3.9 | 0.013 * | LP_low > LP_high |
Table 6.
Stepwise multiple regression analysis for the perioral muscle force.
Dependent Variable | Statistically Significant Independent Variables | B | SE B | p-Value | Adjusted R-Quared | F-Statistic |
---|
TAP | PCB (mm) | 0.86 | 0.24 | <0.001 *** | 0.091 | 10.62 |
| OJ (mm) | −0.55 | 0.25 | 0.027 * | | |
TPP | PCB (mm) | 0.92 | 0.25 | <0.001 *** | 0.099 | 6.28 |
| Tp to PP (mm) | −0.56 | 0.21 | 0.01 * | | |
| OJ (mm) | −0.53 | 0.26 | 0.04 * | | |
| age | 0.29 | 0.13 | 0.03 * | | |
LP | U1 to FH (°) | −0.48 | 0.11 | <0.001 *** | 0.095 | 11.14 |
| FMA (°) | −0.45 | 0.14 | 0.001 ** | | |