The Relationship Between Eating Habits and Anthropometric Values in High School Adolescents
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
Limitations and Recommendations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
| ABP | arterial blood pressure |
| BMI | body mass index |
| CNCDs | chronic non-communicable diseases |
| COSI | Childhood Obesity Surveillance Initiative |
| DBP | diastolic blood pressure |
| EFSA | European Food Safety Authority |
| FFQ | Food Frequency Questionnaire |
| HR | heart rate |
| IQR | interquartile range |
| LDLs | low-density lipoproteins |
| SBP | systolic blood pressure |
| WC | waist circumference |
| WHO | World Health Organization |
| WHR | waist-to-hip ratio |
| WHtR | waist-to-height ratio |
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| Mean (SD) | Mean Difference (95% CI) | p Value | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All Participants | Male (n = 34) | Female (n = 70) | |||
| Age (years) | 17.8 (0.6) | 18 (0.6) | 17 (0.5) | −0.4 (−0.6 to −0.1) | 0.003 |
| Weight (kg) | 67 (12.9) | 80 (12.8) | 62 (7.7) | −18 (−22.9 to 13.3) | <0.001 |
| Height (cm) | 174 (9.7) | 184 (6.8) | 169 (5.9) | −16 (−18.4 to 13.3) | <0.001 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 22.22 (2.8) | 23.31 (3.2) | 21.68 (2.4) | −1.6 (−2.7 to −0.5) | 0.004 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 78.0 (10.1) | 85.3 (8.8) | 74.5 (8.7) | −10.8 (−14.4 to −7.2) | <0.001 |
| Hip circumference (cm) | 99.9 (10.3) | 102.6 (8.9) | 98.6 (10.8) | −4 (−8.2 to 0.2) | 0.061 |
| WHR | 0.78 (0.1) | 0.83 (0.1) | 0.76 (0.1) | −0.07 (−0.1 to −0.05) | <0.001 |
| WHtR | 0.45 (0.05) | 0.46 (0.04) | 0.44 (0.05) | −0.20 (−0.04 to 0.001) | 0.059 |
| ABP (mmHg) | |||||
| Systolic (SBP) | 122 (11.5) | 128 (11.4) | 119 (10.3) | −8.4 (−13.3 to −4.4) | 0.001 |
| Diastolic (DBP) | 69 (8.4) | 70 (9.0) | 69 (8.0) | −1.2 (−4.7 to 2.3) | 0.491 |
| HR | 80 (12.4) | 78 (11.5) | 81 (12.7) | 3.5 (−1.7 to 8.6) | 0.183 |
| Median (IQR) | Median Differences (95% CI) | p Value | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All Participants | Normal Weight (n = 91) | Overweight/ Obese (n = 11) | |||
| WHR | 0.78 (0.74–0.83) | 0.77 (0.73–0.81) | 0.86 (0.84–0.91) | 0.10 (0.06 to 0.13) | <0.001 |
| WHtR | 0.44 (0.41–0.47) | 0.44 (0.41–0.47) | 0.52 (0.51–0.57) | 0.09 (0.06 to 0.12) | <0.001 |
| ABP (mmHg) | |||||
| Systolic (SBP) | 123 (114–129) | 120 (112–128) | 128 (123–144) | 11 (1.7 to 20.0) | 0.020 |
| Diastolic (DBP) | 69 (63–76) | 67 (63–74) | 76 (69–82) | 8 (1.3 to 14.0) | 0.015 |
| HR | 80 (72–88) | 80 (72–88) | 80 (73–90) | 1 (−7 to 8.0) | 0.623 |
| Mean (SD) | Mean Difference (95% CI) | p Value | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All Participants | Normal ABP (n = 83) | Increased ABP (n = 21) | |||
| Age (years) | 17.8 (0.6) | 17.8 (0.7) | 17.9 (0.4) | 0.2 (−0.1 to 0.5) | 0.224 |
| Weight (kg) | 67 (12.9) | 66 (11.2) | 75 (16.3) | 9.4 (3.4 to 15.3) | 0.003 |
| Height (cm) | 174 (9.7) | 170 (9.2) | 179 (9.7) | 7.1 (2.6 to 11.6) | 0.003 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 22.22 (2.8) | 21.98 (2.6) | 23.13 (3.3) | 1.2 (−0.2 to 2.5) | 0.090 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 78.02 (10.1) | 76.49 (8.9) | 84.07 (12.1) | 7.6 (2.9 to 12.3) | 0.002 |
| Hip circumference (cm) | 99.92 (10.3) | 99.3 (10.2) | 102.5 (10.8) | 3.2 (−1.8 to 8.2) | 0.206 |
| WHR | 0.78 (0.1) | 0.77 (0.06) | 0.82 (0.05) | 0.04 (0.02 to 0.07) | 0.002 |
| WHtR | 0.45 (0.05) | 0.44 (0.05) | 0.47 (0.06) | 0.02 (−0.001 to 0.05) | 0.064 |
| ABP (mmHg) | |||||
| Systolic (SBP) | 122 (11.5) | 118 (7.9) | 139 (6.2) | 21.3 (17.6 to 24.9) | <0.001 |
| Diastolic (DBP) | 69 (8.4) | 67 (6.9) | 78 (8.4) | 10.7 (7.2 to 14.2) | <0.001 |
| HR | 80 (12.4) | 81 (12.3) | 77 (12.9) | −3.4 (−9.4 to 2.6) | 0.261 |
| Median (Interquartile Range) | Minimum– Maximum | |
|---|---|---|
| Vegetables | 4 (3–6) | 0–21 |
| Salat | 4 (2–5) | 1–7 |
| Fruit | 5 (3–6) | 1–10 |
| Fish | 1 (1–2) | 1–6 |
| Meat | 5 (3–6) | 1–12 |
| Median (IQR) | Median Differences (95% CI) | p Value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| BMI | Normal Weight (n = 91) | Overweight/ Obese (n = 11) | ||
| Total carbohydrates | 216.4 (149.6–291.4) | 226.9 (186.4–287.3) | 11.9 (−63.2 to 74.2) | 0.710 |
| Percentage of energy from carbohydrates | 44 (41–49) | 42 (36–51) | −3 (−9 to 5) | 0.468 |
| Energy (kcal) | 1958.9 (1455.8–2592.9) | 2415.9 (1715.9–2950.3) | 288.2 (−317.1 to 925.6) | 0.404 |
| Sodium | 2973.2 (2054.0–4314.8) | 2920.1 (2691.4–3803.1) | 139.0 (−915.7 to 1109.0) | 0.768 |
| Total sugars | 100.2 (69.5–151.3) | 114.8 (76.9–158.2) | 4.3 (−38.7 to 45.6) | 0.878 |
| Percentage of energy from sugars | 21 (18–26) | 18 (15–27) | −3 (−7 to 3) | 0.294 |
| Fat | 78.2 (61.4–116.9) | 96.8 (72.2–122.6) | 10.6 (−20.2 to 40.3) | 0.488 |
| Percentage of energy from fat | 17 (16–18) | 17 (15–19) | −1 (−2 to 1) | 0.506 |
| WHR | Normal (n= 96) | Elevated (n= 8) | Median Differences (95% CI) | p * Value |
| Total carbohydrates | 211.7 (149.9–280.2) | 334.9 (255.8–383.1) | 103.9 (7.8 to 168.9) | 0.043 |
| Percentage of energy from carbohydrates | 44 (40–48) | 45 (38–52) | 0 (−6 to 7) | 0.961 |
| Energy (kcal) | 1942.9 (1445.8–2553.6) | 2565.1 (2335.7–3353.7) | 773.3 (212.3 to 1298.6) | 0.012 |
| Sodium | 2928.5 (2098.14–3994.7) | 4123.6 (3727.3–5599.8) | 1316.2 (5.3 to 2368.7) | 0.042 |
| Total sugars | 95.4 (69.7–136.7) | 149.2 (131.9–205.4) | 54.2 (3.6 to 91.2) | 0.040 |
| Percentage of energy from sugars | 21 (18–26) | 23 (16–28.5) | 1 (−58 to 8) | 0.850 |
| Fat | 79.3 (61.5–113.3) | 112.6 (78.0–156.4) | 23.9 (−12.5 to 63.1) | 0.196 |
| Percentage of energy from fat | 17 (16–18) | 17 (12.5–19) | −1 (−4 to 1) | 0.488 |
| WHtR | Normal (≤0.5) (n= 87) | Elevated (n= 17) | Median Differences (95% CI) | p * Value |
| Total carbohydrates | 216.9 (150.6–281.9) | 215.9 (155.7–359.0) | 8.1 (−44.4 to 68.4) | 0.773 |
| Percentage of energy from carbohydrates | 44 (41–49) | 41 (37–47) | −4 (−7 to 1) | 0.081 |
| Energy (kcal) | 1951.01 (1455.8–2575.9) | 2328.7 (1662.1–3344.3) | 278.7 (−179.74 to 760.7) | 0.240 |
| Sodium | 2929.3 (2054.0–4147.6) | 3490.2 (2540.8–4273.2) | 404.6 (−410.5–1128.8) | 0.319 |
| Total sugars | 100.2 (70.1–139.8) | 108.8 (67.6–160.4) | 0.86 (−27.2 to 34.6) | 0.982 |
| Percentage of energy from sugars | 21 (19–26) | 16 (16–25) | −3 (−6 to 0) | 0.064 |
| Fat | 80.4 (62–113.8) | 88.3 (62.1–137.1) | 5.03 (−15.1 to 29.2) | 0.591 |
| Percentage of energy from fat | 17 (16–18) | 17 (16–19) | 0 (−1 to 1) | 0.683 |
| ABP | Normal (n= 83) | Elevated (n= 21) | Median Differences (95% CI) | p * Value |
| Total carbohydrates | 208.6 (147.2–281.9) | 246.5 (205.4–299.5) | 31.3 (−14.5 to 79.0) | 0.183 |
| Percentage of energy from carbohydrates | 44 (41–50) | 39 (37–45) | −4 (−8 to −2) | 0.006 |
| Energy (kcal) | 1889.9 (1391.7–2442.6) | 2527.9 (1980.1–2758.3) | 563.7 (189.6 to 935.2) | 0.005 |
| Sodium | 2851.4 (2041.6–3759.5) | 4150.4 (2728.3–6030.4) | 1151.5 (382.2 to 2033.1) | 0.005 |
| Total sugars | 95.9 (68.7–143.3) | 125.8 (87.3–152.2) | 17.4 (−9.6 to 42.7) | 0.202 |
| Percentage of energy from sugars | 21 (18–26) | 19 (16–23) | −2 (−5 to 0) | 0.091 |
| Fat | 76.9 (59.6–103.1) | 114.3 (84.9–142.5) | 32.8 (12.2 to 54.6) | 0.002 |
| Percentage of energy from fat | 17 (16–18) | 18 (18–20) | 2 (1 to 2) | <0.001 |
| Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient R (p Value) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| BMI | WHR | WHtR | SBP | DBP | |
| Total carbohydrates | 0.024 (0.807) | 0.051 (0.604) | −0.059 (0.551) | −0.009 (0.929) | 0.029 (0.769) |
| Percentage of energy from carbohydrates | −0.143 (0.147) | −0.267 (0.006) | −0.163 (0.092) | −0.343 (<0.001) | −0.133 (0.177) |
| Energy (kcal) | 0.092 (0.354) | 0.166 (0.092) | −0.003 (0.981) | 0.115 (0.244) | 0.080 (0.419) |
| Sodium | −0.100 (0.314) | 0.047 (0.636) | −0.053 (0.59) | 0.166 (0.091) | 0.255 (0.009) |
| Total sugars | 0.028 (0.779) | 0.048 (0.636) | −0.042 (0.668) | −0.038 (0.700) | −0.018 (0.855) |
| Percentage of energy from sugars | −0.073 (0.460) | −0.151 (0.127) | −0.110 (0.270) | −0.260 (0.008) | −0.153 (0.121) |
| Fat | −0.012 (0.900) | 0.135 (0.171) | −0.048 (0.626) | 0.199 (0.043) | 0.195 (0.048) |
| Percentage of energy from fat | −0.162 (0.101) | 0.005 (0.960) | −0.085 (0.385) | 0.198 (0.044) | 0.242 (0.013) |
| Bivariate Logistic Regression | Multivariate Logistic Regression (Stepwise Method) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β | p Value | OR (95% CI) | β | p Value | OR (95% CI) | |
| Sex (F) | −1.57 | 0.002 | 0.21 (0.08 to 0.57) | |||
| Age | 0.49 | 0.219 | 1.64 (0.74 to 3.66) | |||
| WHR (elevated) | 1.54 | 0.041 | 4.65 (1.06 to 20.4) | |||
| WHtR | 8.01 | 0.071 | 30.5 (0.48 to 1847.3) | |||
| Total carbohydrates | 0.003 | 0.224 | 1.002 (0.99 to 1.01) | |||
| Percentage of energy from carbohydrates | −0.11 | 0.007 | 0.89 (0.83 to 0.97) | −0.13 | 0.003 | 0.87 (0.80 to 0.96) |
| Energy (kcal) | 0.001 | 0.029 | 1.001 (1.000 to 1.001) | |||
| Sodium | 0.000 | 0.020 | 1.000 (1.000 to 1.001) | |||
| Total sugars | 0.003 | 0.267 | 1.003 (0.99 to 1.01) | |||
| Percentage of energy from sugars | −0.07 | 0.088 | 0.93 (0.85 to 1.01) | |||
| Fat | 0.01 | 0.007 | 1.01 (1.001 to 1.02) | 2.85 | 0.002 | 1.01 (1.01 to 1.02) |
| Percentage of energy from fat | 0.33 | 0.034 | 1.39 (1.03 to 1.88) | |||
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Firi, L.; Mihaljević, D.; Prošić, I.; Kralik, K.; Stupin, A.; Jukić, I.; Drenjančević, I. The Relationship Between Eating Habits and Anthropometric Values in High School Adolescents. Life 2026, 16, 618. https://doi.org/10.3390/life16040618
Firi L, Mihaljević D, Prošić I, Kralik K, Stupin A, Jukić I, Drenjančević I. The Relationship Between Eating Habits and Anthropometric Values in High School Adolescents. Life. 2026; 16(4):618. https://doi.org/10.3390/life16040618
Chicago/Turabian StyleFiri, Lucija, Dubravka Mihaljević, Ivan Prošić, Kristina Kralik, Ana Stupin, Ivana Jukić, and Ines Drenjančević. 2026. "The Relationship Between Eating Habits and Anthropometric Values in High School Adolescents" Life 16, no. 4: 618. https://doi.org/10.3390/life16040618
APA StyleFiri, L., Mihaljević, D., Prošić, I., Kralik, K., Stupin, A., Jukić, I., & Drenjančević, I. (2026). The Relationship Between Eating Habits and Anthropometric Values in High School Adolescents. Life, 16(4), 618. https://doi.org/10.3390/life16040618

