Ensemble Learning-Based Metamodel for Enhanced Surface Roughness Prediction in Polymeric Machining
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Model Development Methodology in Detail
Cross Validation Method (k-Fold Method)
3. Verification of the Proposed Model Development
3.1. Materials and Experiments
3.2. Meta-Based Model
3.3. Results and Discussion
3.3.1. Quantile Distribution Method
3.3.2. Correlation Analysis
3.3.3. Performance of Meta-Based Models
3.3.4. Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) Curve Analysis
3.3.5. Limitation of the Study
4. Conclusions and Further Improvement
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Purpose of the Research | Materials Involved | Algorithm Used | Year of Publication and Reference |
---|---|---|---|
An analytical model that predicts cutting force through working normal rake angle (WNRA) and working inclination angle (WIA) during turning operation. | GH 4169 (a nickel-based superalloy) | No ML algorithm was used as it is an Analytical model | 2021 [3] |
An ML mode that predicts drill tool force through inputs from inertial measurement unit (IMU) and sensors. | Steel | Gaussian Process Regressor | 2021 [4] |
An ML model that predicts tool flank wear through acoustic emission sensors during turning operation. | 19NiMoCr6 steel | Random forest regressor. The performance of the model was compared with ANN, SVM, KNN DT algorithms | 2021 [5] |
An ML model that predicts the energy usage through cross sectional data, tool wear, and spindle motor life during machining. | Traditional algorithms such as Artificial Neural Networks, support vector regression, and Gaussian Process Regression and deep learning network | 2021 [6] | |
To improve tool wear prediction accuracy, reduce computation time, model complexity, and enhance decision making in smart manufacturing systems. | HRC52 stainless steel | Random Forest Regression model for improving tool wear prediction accuracy | 2021 [7] |
To accurately predict tool wear states during machining processes by utilizing historical machining data and improve product quality and operational efficiency. | TC18 titanium | Genetic algorithm for feature selection, maximum mean discrepancy for feature evaluation, and particle swarm-optimized vector for prediction | 2021 [8] |
Predict tool life stages by using cutting force data to avoid catastrophic tool breakage during machining. | SS304 stainless steel | K-means clustering for machining data identification, principal component analysis for feature extraction, Random forest model for predicting tool life stage | 2021 [9] |
To improve tool cutting prediction accuracy by using ALO-ELM algorithm. | 45 steel | Ant Lion Optimizer (ALO), Extreme Learning Machine (ELM), Backpropagation (BP) neural network, and support vector machine (SVM) | 2022 [10] |
Develop learning algorithms for wear estimation, focusing on predictive maintenance of cutting tools. | Medium alloy steel, Hardox and C45 steel | SVM classifiers for wear classification, LSTM neural network for Remaining useful life (RUL) prediction and One-way Anova for feature selection | 2022 [11] |
To improve cutting force prediction accuracy and optimize machining process for better outcomes. | Ti6AI4V | Artificial Neural Network (ANN) for cutting force prediction and Genetic Algorithm for optimization and estimation | 2022 [12] |
Model and optimize hard turning of AISI D6 steel to reduce machine downtime and production costs. | AISI D6 steel | Polynomial regression (PR), Random forest (RF) regression, gradient boosted (GB) trees, and adaptive boosting (AB) based regression | 2022 [13] |
To predict remaining useful life of milling cutters using multisource sensor data for accurate predictions. | C45 grade steel | Multiscale convolutional attention network (MSAN) for feature learning and Genetic Algorithm (GA) for parameter optimization | 2022 [14] |
To predict milling stability efficiently using transfer learning in order to avoid chatter vibrations in milling processes. | Cemented carbide | Transfer learning | 2022 [15] |
Develop cutting force model that can contribute to monitor machining process, optimizing cutting parameters, and ensuring machining quality. | AISI4340 alloy structural steel | No ML algorithm used as it is an Analytical model | 2022 [16] |
To analyze milling force in SiCp/2009Al composites and study material removal mechanisms during milling. | Silicon carbide particle-reinforced aluminium matrix composites (SiCp/2009Al) | No ML algorithm used as it is an Analytical model | 2022 [17] |
To monitor cutting tool degradation using neural networks and assess tool wear under varying cutting conditions. | AISI 304 steel | Random Forest Regressor (RF) model, Gradient Booster Regressor (GBR) model, and Extreme Gradient Booster Regressor (XGBoost) model | 2023 [18] |
To review cutting force prediction methods and highlight machine learning potential in force prediction accuracy. | Fiber-reinforced ceramic matrix composites | Review of various machine learning models for cutting force prediction | 2023 [19] |
To predict machining force components during hard turning of AISI 52100 bearing steel using machine learning models. | AISI 52100 bearing steel | Linear Regression (LR), Support vector regression, ensemble learning-based regression | 2023 [20] |
To study the factors affecting vibration of the tool and surface quality of the workpiece during turning by applying simulation and machine learning model methods. | AA6061 aluminum | Neural network model | 2023 [21] |
To reduce energy consumption in maize straw chopping and minimize breaking force during the chopping process by constructing a predictive model using machine learning algorithms. | Rind-Pith material: MATPLASTICKINEMATIC, density 1120 kg/m3 | Back-propagation (BP), Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Support vector regression | 2023 [22] |
To review AI and ML applications in CNC machining. | Materials are not specified, as it is a review paper | Review of various Machine learning models used in CNC machining | 2023 [23] |
To examine TMPTO-based lubricant effects n drilling performance, optimize thrust force and torque during high-speed drilling, and evaluate the biodegradable lube oils for cutting force prediction. | AA6061 aluminum | Random forest, Support vector machines | 2023 [24] |
To predict cutting force in machining processes accurately, utilizing deep learning models. | Aluminum alloy | Deep learning, Long short-term memory (LSTM) model | 2023 [25] |
Develop predictive models using machine learning techniques to predict flank wear during dry hard turning. | AISI D2 steel | Artificial Neural Network, support vector machine (SVM). Polynomial fit using Genetic Algorithm | 2023 [26] |
To optimize energy consumption in machining process and apply machine learning techniques for predictive modeling. | PH13-8 Mo stainless steel | Linear regression, multilayer perceptron, gradient boost regression, and Adaboost regression | 2024 [27] |
Develop machine learning models for chatter identification in milling. | Ti6AI4V alloy | Decision trees, support vector machines. | 2024 [28] |
To characterize cutting force and residual stress using Bayesian machine learning framework for analysis and optimize machining parameters for surface integrity. | Aluminum alloys | Bayesian machine learning framework | 2024 [29] |
To integrate physics-based models with machine learning to enhance production efficiency, production quality, and reduce manufacturing cost through improved monitoring | 1050 steel and Ti6AI4V alloy | Least-square boosting, Random forest, and support vector machine | 2024 [30] |
Machine learning method for cutting force estimation and monitoring milling processes accurately. | Pre-hardened steel and A5052 aluminum alloy | Multilayer perceptron | 2024 [31] |
Develop explainable machine learning models for accurate predictions. | 2071A aluminum alloy | Explainable Machine learning model | 2024 [32] |
To capture non-linear behavior of material models and predict cutting forces efficiently. | Steel | Random forest, support vector machine, XGBoost, LightGBM | 2024 [33] |
To monitor cutting tool degradation using neural networks and assess tool wear under varying cutting conditions. | C45 Steel | Neural Network | 2024 [34] |
Material | Machining Parameter | Level | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
I | II | III | ||
POM | Speed (Vc) (m/minute) | 90 | 135 | 180 |
Feed (f) (mm/rev) | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.5 | |
Depth of cut (ap) (mm) | 0.5 | 1.0 | 1.5 | |
PTFE | Speed (Vc) (m/minute) | 80 | 120 | 160 |
Feed (f) (mm/rev) | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.5 | |
Depth of cut (ap) (mm) | 0.5 | 0.75 | 1.0 | |
PEEK | Speed (Vc) (m/minute) | 95 | 125 | 155 |
Feed (f) (mm/rev) | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.6 | |
Depth of cut (ap) (mm) | 0.25 | 0.5 | 0.75 | |
PEEK/MWCNT composite | Speed (Vc) (m/minute) | 750 | 1500 | 2250 |
Feed (f) (mm/rev) | 0.15 | 0.45 | 0.75 | |
Depth of cut (ap) (mm) | 0.1 | 1.0 | 1.8 |
Material | Cutting Speed Vc (mm/min) | Feed Rate f (mm/rev) | Depth of Cut ap (mm) | Surface Roughness Ra (µm) |
---|---|---|---|---|
POM | 90 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 0.79 |
90 | 0.1 | 1.0 | 0.61 | |
90 | 0.1 | 1.5 | 0.56 | |
90 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 1.88 | |
90 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 1.78 | |
90 | 0.3 | 1.5 | 1.74 | |
90 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 1.67 | |
90 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 1.59 | |
135 | 0.5 | 1.5 | 1.65 | |
135 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 1.18 | |
135 | 0.1 | 1.5 | 0.84 | |
135 | 0.1 | 1.0 | 0.66 | |
135 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 1.60 | |
135 | 0.3 | 1.5 | 1.72 | |
135 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 1.66 | |
135 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 1.50 | |
135 | 0.5 | 1.5 | 1.80 | |
135 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 1.43 | |
180 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 1.19 | |
180 | 0.1 | 1.5 | 0.89 | |
180 | 0.1 | 1.0 | 0.67 | |
180 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 1.62 | |
180 | 0.3 | 1.5 | 1.65 | |
180 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 1.60 | |
180 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 1.42 | |
180 | 0.5 | 1.5 | 1.61 | |
180 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 1.59 | |
Material | Cutting Speed Vc (mm/min) | Feed Rate f (mm/rev) | Depth of Cut ap (mm) | Surface Roughness Ra (µm) |
PTFE | 120 | 0.3 | 1 | 2.26 |
120 | 0.3 | 0.75 | 2.67 | |
80 | 0.5 | 0.75 | 3.19 | |
160 | 0.3 | 0.75 | 2.69 | |
160 | 0.3 | 0.75 | 2.85 | |
160 | 0.3 | 0.75 | 2.46 | |
120 | 0.5 | 0.75 | 2.19 | |
80 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 1.76 | |
80 | 0.3 | 0.75 | 2.14 | |
160 | 0.5 | 0.75 | 2.32 | |
160 | 0.1 | 0.75 | 3.22 | |
80 | 0.3 | 0.75 | 2.0 | |
120 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 1.89 | |
120 | 0.1 | 0.75 | 1.9 | |
120 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 2.48 | |
120 | 0.3 | 0.75 | 2.69 | |
120 | 0.5 | 1 | 2.96 | |
120 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 2.23 | |
160 | 0.3 | 1 | 2.29 | |
80 | 0.3 | 1 | 2.54 | |
120 | 0.3 | 0.75 | 2.15 | |
120 | 0.1 | 1 | 1.77 | |
120 | 0.5 | 0.75 | 2.84 | |
120 | 0.3 | 1 | 2.1 | |
120 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 2.43 | |
120 | 0.1 | 0.75 | 2.18 | |
80 | 0.1 | 0.75 | 1.54 | |
Material | Cutting Speed Vc (mm/min) | Feed Rate f (mm/rev) | Depth of Cut ap (mm) | Surface Roughness Ra (µm) |
PEEK | 95 | 0.2 | 0.25 | 1.156 |
95 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 1.193 | |
95 | 0.2 | 0.75 | 1.446 | |
95 | 0.4 | 0.25 | 4.57 | |
95 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 5.29 | |
95 | 0.4 | 0.75 | 5.37 | |
95 | 0.6 | 0.25 | 6.09 | |
95 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 8.14 | |
95 | 0.6 | 0.75 | 8.47 | |
125 | 0.2 | 0.25 | 1.203 | |
125 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 1.15 | |
125 | 0.2 | 0.75 | 1.5 | |
125 | 0.4 | 0.25 | 4.51 | |
125 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 4.83 | |
125 | 0.4 | 0.75 | 6.293 | |
125 | 0.6 | 0.25 | 7.16 | |
125 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 8.18 | |
125 | 0.6 | 0.75 | 8.74 | |
155 | 0.2 | 0.25 | 1.02 | |
155 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 1.126 | |
155 | 0.2 | 0.75 | 1.24 | |
155 | 0.4 | 0.25 | 4.6 | |
155 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 4.41 | |
155 | 0.4 | 0.75 | 5.21 | |
155 | 0.6 | 0.25 | 6.38 | |
155 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 8.32 | |
155 | 0.6 | 0.75 | 8.72 | |
Material | Cutting Speed Vc (mm/min) | Feed Rate f (mm/rev) | Depth of Cut ap (mm) | Surface Roughness Ra (µm) |
PEEK/MWCNT | rpm | mm/rev | Mm | µm |
750 | 0.15 | 0.2 | 0.84 | |
750 | 0.15 | 1 | 0.92 | |
750 | 0.15 | 1.8 | 1.02 | |
750 | 0.45 | 0.2 | 1.24 | |
750 | 0.45 | 1 | 0.99 | |
750 | 0.45 | 1.8 | 1.42 | |
750 | 0.75 | 0.2 | 1.93 | |
750 | 0.75 | 1 | 2.22 | |
750 | 0.75 | 1.8 | 2.32 | |
1500 | 0.15 | 0.2 | 0.83 | |
1500 | 0.15 | 1 | 0.88 | |
1500 | 0.15 | 1.8 | 1.04 | |
1500 | 0.45 | 0.2 | 1.84 | |
1500 | 0.45 | 1 | 1.69 | |
1500 | 0.45 | 1.8 | 2.06 | |
1500 | 0.75 | 0.2 | 2.30 | |
1500 | 0.75 | 1 | 2.43 | |
1500 | 0.75 | 1.8 | 2.66 | |
2250 | 0.15 | 0.2 | 0.85 | |
2250 | 0.15 | 1 | 0.88 | |
2250 | 0.15 | 1.8 | 1.00 | |
2250 | 0.45 | 0.2 | 1.45 | |
2250 | 0.45 | 1 | 1.51 | |
2250 | 0.45 | 1.8 | 1.68 | |
2250 | 0.75 | 0.2 | 2.15 | |
2250 | 0.75 | 1 | 2.26 | |
2250 | 0.75 | 1.8 | 2.47 |
Material | Classes from Quantile Percentage | Data Size | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Group 1 | Group 2 | Training | Validation | |
DELRIN | µ ≤ 1.590 | µ > 1.590 and µ ≤ 1.88 | 21 | 6 |
PTFE | µ ≤ 2.29 | µ > 2.29 and µ ≤ 3.22 | 21 | 6 |
PEEK | µ ≤ 4.83 | µ > 4.83 and µ ≤ 8.74 | 21 | 6 |
PEEK/MWCNT | µ ≤ 1.51 | µ > 1.51 and µ ≤ 2.66 | 21 | 6 |
Parameter | DELRIN (Material 1) | PTFE (Material 2) | PEEK (Material 3) | PEEK/MWCNT (Material 4) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
F-Stat | p-Value | F-Stat | p-Value | F-Stat | p-Value | F-Stat | p-Value | |
Speed | 0.0772 | 0.7842 | 0.07715 | 0.784197 | 0.2679 | 0.6107 | 0.0531 | 0.8201 |
Feed | 4.2564 | 0.0530 | 4.256423 | 0.053039 | 30.7619 | 0.000024 | 38.2657 | 0.000006 |
Depth of Cut | 1.6819 | 0.2102 | 1.681983 | 0.21019 | 2.2352 | 0.1513 | 0.0637 | 0.8034 |
DELRIN (Material 1) | Accuracy | F1-Score | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Train | Test | Train | Test | |
Logistic Regression model | 71.4 | 66.6 | 73 | 67 |
XGB model | 52.3 | 33.3 | 69 | 50 |
PTFE (Material 2) | Accuracy | F1-Score | ||
Train | Test | Train | Test | |
Logistic Regression model | 71.4 | 66.6 | 73 | 67 |
XGB model | 52.3 | 33.3 | 69 | 50 |
PEEK (Material 3) | Accuracy | F1-Score | ||
Train | Test | Train | Test | |
Logistic Regression model | 94.3 | 91.8 | 92 | 89 |
XGB model | 52.3 | 48.2 | 69 | 48 |
PEEK/MWCNT (Material 4) | Accuracy | F1-Score | ||
Train | Test | Train | Test | |
Logistic Regression model | 90.2 | 83.33 | 91 | 86 |
XGB model | 52.3 | 50 | 69 | 67 |
DELRIN | R2 | RMSE | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
(Material 1) | Train | Test | Train | Test |
SVR | 79.7 | 74.2 | 0.089 | 0.095 |
XGB | 99.67 | 97.21 | 0.031 | 0.039 |
PTFE | R2 | RMSE | ||
(Material 2) | Train | Test | Train | Test |
SVR | 82.6 | 79.1 | 0.067 | 0.078 |
XGB | 99.95 | 90.5 | 0.031 | 0.039 |
PEEK | R2 | RMSE | ||
(Material 3) | Train | Test | Train | Test |
SVR | 82.8 | 74.3 | 0.091 | 0.096 |
XGB | 99.55 | 96.93 | 0.029 | 0.041 |
PEEK/MWCNT | R2 | RMSE | ||
(Material 4) | Train | Test | Train | Test |
SVR | 81.2 | 78.9 | 0.077 | 0.071 |
XGB | 99.91 | 97.31 | 0.024 | 0.029 |
Material | Model | R2 | RMSE |
---|---|---|---|
Delrin (Material 1) | SVR (Plain) | 60.70 | 0.416 |
XGB (Plain) | 88.70 | 0.147 | |
XGB with Discretization | 99.67 | 0.031 | |
PTFE (Material 2) | SVR (Plain) | 61.30 | 0.297 |
XGB (Plain) | 90.12 | 0.120 | |
XGB with Discretization | 99.95 | 0.027 | |
PEEK (Material 3) | SVR (Plain) | 61.70 | 0.299 |
XGB (Plain) | 0.961 | 0.060 | |
XGB with Discretization | 99.55 | 0.029 | |
PEEK/MWCNT (Material 4) | SVR (Plain) | 60.03 | 0.380 |
XGB (Plain) | 91.02 | 0.098 | |
XGB with Discretization | 99.91 | 0.024 |
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Natarajan, E.; Ramasamy, M.; Elango, S.; Mohanraj, K.; Ang, C.K.; Khalfallah, A. Ensemble Learning-Based Metamodel for Enhanced Surface Roughness Prediction in Polymeric Machining. Machines 2025, 13, 570. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines13070570
Natarajan E, Ramasamy M, Elango S, Mohanraj K, Ang CK, Khalfallah A. Ensemble Learning-Based Metamodel for Enhanced Surface Roughness Prediction in Polymeric Machining. Machines. 2025; 13(7):570. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines13070570
Chicago/Turabian StyleNatarajan, Elango, Manickam Ramasamy, Sangeetha Elango, Karthikeyan Mohanraj, Chun Kit Ang, and Ali Khalfallah. 2025. "Ensemble Learning-Based Metamodel for Enhanced Surface Roughness Prediction in Polymeric Machining" Machines 13, no. 7: 570. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines13070570
APA StyleNatarajan, E., Ramasamy, M., Elango, S., Mohanraj, K., Ang, C. K., & Khalfallah, A. (2025). Ensemble Learning-Based Metamodel for Enhanced Surface Roughness Prediction in Polymeric Machining. Machines, 13(7), 570. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines13070570