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Review

Manganese Resources in China: An Overview of Resource Status and Recent Advances in Metallogenic Models and Exploration

1
School of Metallurgy and Environment, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
2
Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Nonferrous Metal Resources Recycling, Changsha 410083, China
3
National Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Recycling of Nonferrous Metal Resources, Changsha 410083, China
4
Key Laboratory of Metallogenic Prediction of Nonferrous Metals and Geological Environment Monitoring, Ministry of Education, School of Geosciences and Info-Physics, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
5
School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2025, 15(8), 859; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15080859
Submission received: 27 June 2025 / Revised: 3 August 2025 / Accepted: 9 August 2025 / Published: 15 August 2025

Abstract

Manganese is a critical metal for modern industry, essential in steelmaking and increasingly important for the production of advanced battery materials. As one of the world’s leading consumers and importers of manganese, China faces a persistent supply–demand imbalance, primarily due to the predominance of low-grade domestic resources that are highly impure and are further characterized by complex mineral textures and assemblages. This challenge is further exacerbated by surging demand from emerging sectors, particularly green energy technologies. This review systematically summarizes the current status of China’s manganese resources, focusing on their geological characteristics, genetic classifications, temporal and spatial distributions, and metallogenic belts. Recent advances in ore-forming theory and major breakthroughs in exploration over the past decade are critically reviewed, with emphasis on their implications for prospecting strategies and metallogenic models. The findings aim to guide future research directions and support strategic resource planning and industrial upgrading.

1. Introduction

Manganese is a fundamental industrial metal with diverse applications across traditional heavy industries and emerging strategic sectors. In the steel industry, it functions as a critical alloying element, facilitating deoxidation and desulfurization while enhancing the mechanical properties of steel, making it the second most consumed metallic element after iron [1,2]. Approximately 90% of global manganese production is used in metallurgical processes to improve steel quality [1,3,4].
In recent years, structural shifts in global industry have driven a growing demand for manganese in high-tech sectors, particularly those aligned with the energy transition. High-purity manganese compounds, such as electrolytic manganese dioxide and manganese sulfate monohydrate, have become essential components of lithium-ion battery cathode materials [5,6,7,8,9,10]. Among them, lithium manganese oxide has attracted attention due to its excellent high-temperature cycling stability and cost-effectiveness, making it a promising material for power battery applications [6,11,12,13,14]. This shift in demand across industrial sectors has redefined manganese from a conventional metallurgical raw material to a strategic resource essential for the global energy transition and high-end manufacturing [15,16,17].
Global terrestrial manganese resources are abundant but highly unevenly distributed, resulting in a concentration of reserves. Approximately 78% of global manganese reserves are located in Australia, South Africa, and Brazil [18,19,20,21,22] (Figure 1). This distribution pattern has resulted in a global supply framework dominated by a limited number of producing countries [23,24]. As the world’s largest manganese consumer, China’s manganese metal consumption reached 13.12 million tonnes in 2022, accounting for 66% of worldwide consumption. However, there is a marked mismatch between China’s resource endowment and its consumption levels, leading to a persistent supply–demand imbalance. As of 2024, China’s cumulative proven manganese ore reserves total approximately 261 million tons (equivalent to ~55 million tonnes of manganese metal), while the predicted resource base to a depth of 2000 m is estimated at 3.3 billion tonnes [25,26]. Nonetheless, the quality of domestic resources remains a critical constraint. China’s manganese ores are typically low-grade, with an average grade of only 21.4%. Low-grade ores (<30% Mn) comprise 93.6% of the total reserves, and these ores commonly contain abundant impurities [23]. These characteristics significantly increase mining and beneficiation costs in China compared to international standards [23,27,28]. As a result, the imbalance between manganese supply and demand in China has become increasingly pronounced in recent years. In 2022, domestic manganese ore production reached 7.43 million tonnes (Figure 2), accounting for only approximately 10% of the national demand for high-grade ores. Consequently, import dependence rose sharply from 62% in 2010 to over 90% in 2024 [18,29,30,31,32]. Notably, more than 70% of China’s imported manganese is sourced from a few countries, particularly South Africa and Gabon, making the supply chain of China highly concentrated and vulnerable to external disruptions. Meanwhile, driven by the rapid expansion of the green energy sector, manganese consumption for power battery production surged from less than 50,000 tonnes in 2015 to approximately 130,000 tonnes in 2023. With the ongoing commercialization of lithium manganese iron phosphate battery technology, demand for battery-grade manganese is projected to grow at an annual rate of 15–20% beyond 2025, further intensifying the existing supply–demand imbalance [4,15,33,34,35].
Driven by increasing resource constraints and the imperative for industrial upgrading, China has made substantial advances in manganese metallogenic theory and exploration technology in recent years. In particular, ongoing investigations into the Datangpo manganese deposits of the Nanhua period (Cryogenian) have led to the proposal of a new mineralization model: sedimentary-exhalative Mn mineralization driven by paleo-hydrocarbon seepage [36,37]. This model addresses previous limitations in the understanding of sedimentary manganese ore-forming processes and significantly enhances the theoretical framework for Nanhua-period manganese metallogenesis in China [38,39,40,41,42,43]. Simultaneously, the integration of deep drilling, high-resolution geophysical techniques, 3D geological modeling, and data-driven analytics has facilitated major exploration breakthroughs across multiple stratigraphic units, including those of the Nanhua, Carboniferous, Permian, and Triassic [37,41,44,45,46,47,48]. These advancements have redefined the understanding of manganese resource distribution in China and catalyzed a transition in exploration strategies from near-surface prospecting to deep-targeted prediction.
Several critical gaps remain in the understanding of manganese metallogenesis in China. Existing metallogenic models are often limited to individual periods or deposit types, such as Nanhua-period carbonate manganese deposits and Permian-period oxide manganese deposits, and lack comprehensive, comparative analyses across broader geological timescales from the Sinian to the Mesozoic. In addition, although exploration technologies have delivered notable success in the structurally complex terranes of southern China, the manganese resource potential in northern tectonic domains (e.g., the North China Craton and the northern margin of the Yangtze Block) remains insufficiently evaluated. In response to these challenges, the present review provides a comprehensive synthesis of the characteristics of China’s manganese resources. It integrates key geological attributes, including deposit geology, spatiotemporal distribution, and metallogenic belts across diverse genetic classifications. Furthermore, the review summarizes recent advances in manganese metallogenic theory and exploration technologies, offering a scientific basis for future research initiatives and strategic guidance for national resource policy and industrial transformation.

2. Geochemical Properties of Manganese

Manganese is a redox-sensitive element, whose geochemical behavior is closely governed by ambient redox conditions [49]. In weakly alkaline marine or weakly acidic freshwater environments, manganese tends to precipitate under highly oxidizing conditions, forming manganese oxides or hydroxides in higher oxidation states (Mn3+ and Mn4+) [24,50]. Under reducing conditions, manganese primarily exists as dissolved Mn2+ or precipitates as manganese carbonates [51,52]. Natural occurrences of manganese sulfides (e.g., MnS) are rare and are generally restricted to exceptional settings, such as the anoxic zones of the Baltic Sea [24,53,54,55,56,57]. Manganese oxides are generally restricted to fully oxidizing conditions above redox boundaries, whereas manganese carbonates can precipitate across a broader redox spectrum, including oxidizing, suboxic, and reducing environments [58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66]. Furthermore, in aqueous systems with elevated Mn2+ concentrations, manganese may substitute for Ca2+ in authigenic carbonates, leading to the formation of manganese-bearing carbonate minerals [67,68].

3. Metallogenic Belts of Manganese Deposits in China

Manganese resources in China are geographically widespread. Based on a comprehensive synthesis of known manganese occurrences, established metallogenic belts frameworks, regional tectonic structures, and geochemical anomalies of manganese [69,70], thirteen major manganese metallogenic belts have been preliminarily defined. These include the Yanliao-Taihang Metallogenic Belt, the Peri-Yangtze Platform Marginal Metallogenic Belt, the Southeastern-, Northern-, Western-Yangtze Platform Margin Metallogenic Belt, the Intra-Yangtze Platform Metallogenic Belt, the Nanpanjiang-Youjiang Basin Metallogenic Belt, the Hunan-Guangxi-Guangdong Basin Metallogenic Belt, the Southwestern Fujian-Eastern Guangdong Metallogenic Belt, the Southwestern Yunnan Tethyan Metallogenic Belt, the Qilian Orogen Metallogenic Belt, the Tianshan Accretionary Metallogenic Belt, and the Kunlun Orogen Metallogenic Belt. Detailed information about these metallogenic belts is illustrated in Figure 3 and provided in Table 1.

4. Types and Spatiotemporal Distribution of Manganese Deposits in China

4.1. General Characteriscs of Manganese Resources in China

Manganese resources in China exhibit several distinct geological and economic characteristics in terms of deposit scale, ore grade, mineralogical complexity, and mining conditions.
  • Deposit Size
The majority of documented deposits are medium/small-scale, with large- and giant-scale deposits being rare. Among over 400 documented manganese deposits, only five qualify as giant (reserves ≥ 100 million tonnes, Mt), including the Xialei deposit (~180 Mt) in Guangxi province, and the Pujue (200 Mt), Daotuo (140 Mt), Taoziping (110 Mt), and Gaodi (160 Mt) deposits in Guizhou province. In addition, there are 15 large-scale deposits (≥20 Mt) and approximately 60 medium-scale deposits (2–20 Mt). The remainder comprises small-scale deposits, most of which are economically marginal [27,28,71,72,73].
2.
Ore Grade and Quality
Manganese resources in China are predominantly low-grade and the average manganese ore grade nationwide is 21.4% [71,74]. Approximately 93.6% of the total reserves consist of low-grade ores (<30% Mn). Of these, 73% of China’s proven reserves have grades below 20% [75].
3.
Impurities and Mining Conditions
Manganese ores in China are commonly characterized by elevated iron (Fe) and phosphorus (P) contents, forming ores with fine-grained textures and complex mineral intergrowths of ore and gangue minerals. These mineralogical features significantly complicate beneficiation. In addition, nearly 80% of China’s manganese deposits require underground mining, often complicated by structural disruptions such as faulting and intense fracturing, and only ~6% of the deposits are amenable to open-pit mining [27].

4.2. Genetic Classification of Manganese Deposits

Manganese deposits in China are predominantly of carbonate (MnCO3) and oxide (Mn2O3, MnO2) types, formed in marine, continental, and supergene environments [27,50,69,70,74,76]. Based on mineralization processes and host lithologies, these deposits are classified into into six principal genetic types: sedimentary, volcanic-sedimentary, hydrothermal overprinted stratabound, magmatic-hydrothermal, metamorphosed, and supergene types (Table 2).

4.2.1. Sedimentary Manganese Deposits

Sedimentary manganese deposits can be subdivided into continental lacustrine and marine types [69]. Continental lacustrine sedimentary manganese deposits are typically small and account for only 0.6% of China’s total manganese reserves [71]. These deposits form in shallow lacustrine or swamp environments and are dominated by rhodochrosite and siderite. Representative examples include the Tunliu and Shangcun deposits in Shanxi province. In contrast, marine sedimentary deposits, which account for approximately 71% of China’s reserves, represent the dominant deposit type in China (Figure 4). These deposits are commonly hosted in extensional basin settings and are characterized by stratiform or lenticular orebodies. This type of deposit can be further classified into four subtypes based on differences in host lithology and depositional setting [69,70]:
Carbonate Manganese Deposits in Black Shales: These large- to medium-sized deposits formed in nearshore, semi-enclosed bays or restricted basins within continental rift settings. Mineralization is associated with syn-sedimentary faulting and hydrothermal input. In a rift extension setting, deep-sourced Mn-enriched fluids (derived primarily from mantle/crustal sources) migrate upward through fault systems. Subsequent tectonic activity alters the redox conditions of the depositional environment, triggering precipitation of manganese oxides in weakly oxygenated water bodies. These oxides are subsequently reduced by organic matter during diagenesis, transforming into industrial ore dominantly composed of rhodochrosite. Host rocks are typically interbedded carbonaceous shales, siliceous rocks, claystones, thin limestones, and dolomites. Notable examples include the Xiangtan-type deposits in the east-central Hunan sag, the Datangpo-type deposits in the eastern Guizhou uplift, and the Zunyi-type deposits in the northern Guizhou–eastern Yunnan rift zone [36,37,77] (Figure 5).
Stratiform Mn-Oxide-Carbonate Deposits in Fine Clastic Rocks: These deposits usually formed in shallow marine environments along continental margins, with manganese sourced primarily from continental weathering. Mineralization is controlled by facies transitions within clastic-carbonate depositional systems. Orebodies are typically lens-shaped, multilayered, and stratabound. The main ore minerals include pyrolusite, manganite, rhodochrosite, kutnohorite, and Mn-bearing calcite. Notable examples include the Wafangzi deposit in Liaoning province and the Dounan deposit in Yunnan province [78,79].
Oxide-Carbonate Manganese Deposits in Carbonate Rocks: This type of deposit is distributed along shallow marine platform margins and is genetically associated with redox gradients and post-depositional alteration. Host rocks include dolomite, silty dolomite, and dolomitic limestone. Orebodies are typically stratabound. Ore assemblages consist of pyrolusite, rhodochrosite, and kutnohorite, with secondary oxidized products such as cryptomelane occurring in the shallower zones. Representative examples include the Baixian deposit in Yunnan province and the Dongshuichang deposit in Tianjin city [69,71].
Carbonate Manganese Deposits in Siliceous-Argillaceous Limestone Sequences: These deposits occur in marginal shelf settings where manganese is sourced from a combination of continental weathering and submarine hydrothermal activity, and deposition is strongly influenced by paleotopography. Host rocks include siliceous limestone and argillaceous limestone. A representative example is the Xialei deposit in Guangxi province [70,73,74].

4.2.2. Volcanogenic-Sedimentary Manganese Deposits

Volcanogenic-sedimentary manganese deposits constitute approximately 4% of China’s total manganese reserves (Figure 4) and are generally of small to medium scale [71]. These deposits are primarily hosted in orogenic rift troughs and their marginal zones, where they are spatially and genetically associated with volcanic activity. Mineralization is controlled by the input of manganese from volcanic eruptions and submarine hydrothermal exhalations, followed by sedimentary accumulation and diagenetic fluid–rock interaction. The ore-bearing strata consist of marine volcanogenic-sedimentary sequences deposited during quiescent volcanic intervals or between eruptive phases. These sequences are composed of interbedded siliceous rocks, carbonates, clastic sediments, intermediate to mafic volcanic lavas, tuffs, and jaspers. Volcaniclastic detritus is commonly present in the clastic units. Orebodies occur as stratabound or lenticular bodies, often situated at lithofacies transitions between clastic and carbonate rocks or within layered volcanogenic-sedimentary successions. The ore mineral assemblage is mineralogically diverse, including manganese oxides, carbonates, hydrous manganese silicates, and various iron-bearing phases. The Mn/Fe ratios of these deposits typically range from 0.1 to 10, distinguishing them from conventional marine sedimentary manganese deposits [70]. Representative examples include the Motoshala iron-manganese deposit in Xinjiang province and the Lijiaying deposit in Shaanxi province [27,71] (Figure 5).

4.2.3. Hydrothermal Overprinted Stratabound Polymetallic Deposits

Hydrothermally overprinted stratabound polymetallic deposits account for approximately 7% of China’s total manganese reserves, with resource estimates continuing to rise due to ongoing exploration efforts [70]. These deposits display stratigraphic control, coupled with clear evidence of post-depositional hydrothermal alteration, and are interpreted as products of hybrid sedimentary-tectonic mineralization processes [69]. They are primarily stratabound and occur within Middle to Upper Devonian carbonate units and Lower to Middle Carboniferous transitional sequences in South China [71]. Orebodies typically form lenticular or vein-like bodies that are broadly concordant with bedding, although local cross-cutting relationships may occur. Host-rock alteration is characterized by widespread dolomitization and iron-manganese carbonatization, with localized skarn formation and silicification. The primary ore assemblage includes rhodochrosite, manganoan siderite, alabandite, magnetite, galena, and sphalerite. Supergene enrichment within oxidation zones has produced secondary assemblages dominated by cryptomelane and pyrolusite, alongside lead–zinc minerals such as coronadite and cerussite [69,75]. Notable examples of this deposit type include the Houjiangqiao and Manaoshan deposits in Hunan Province [27,71].

4.2.4. Magmatic-Hydrothermal Manganese Deposits

Magmatic-hydrothermal manganese deposits account for approximately 1% of China’s total manganese reserves [69]. These deposits are typically small, although medium-sized occurrences have also been documented. They are genetically associated with post-magmatic or volcanic hydrothermal processes, during which manganese is leached from regionally distributed manganese-bearing limestones and reprecipitated along structural pathways such as faults, fractures, and lithological boundaries [69,70]. Orebodies are structurally controlled and typically occur as irregular veins, lenses, or stratabound bodies. The principal ore minerals are rhodochrosite and alabandite, commonly accompanied by sulfides of silver, lead, and zinc. Notable examples of this deposit type include the Zhijiadi deposit in Shanxi province, and the Xiangguang deposit and Xiaokouhuaying deposit in Hebei province [69,70,71,74] (Figure 5).

4.2.5. Metamorphosed Manganese Deposits

Metamorphosed manganese deposits contribute approximately 4% of China’s total manganese reserves. These deposits are derived from the regional or contact metamorphism of primary marine sedimentary manganese formations and are typically associated with tectonothermal activity along ancient continental margins. Two subtypes are recognized. The first subtype includes deposits formed under regional metamorphism, such as the Tiantaishan deposit in Shaanxi province and the Huya deposit in Sichuan province [25,27,69]. These occur within phyllites and argillaceous siltstones that have experienced greenschist-facies metamorphism. The ores commonly exhibit recrystallized or pisolitic textures, with mineral assemblages dominated by manganite, pyrolusite, and Mn-bearing amphiboles. The second subtype is attributed to contact metamorphism and is exemplified by the Tangganshan deposit in Hunan province [71]. This type occurs within contact aureoles surrounding late-stage felsic magmatic intrusions and is hosted in weakly to moderately metamorphosed slates or greenschists that locally preserve primary sedimentary structures such as stratabound or lenticular layering. In these deposits, primary rhodochrosite is partially replaced by alabandite and manganese amphiboles.

4.2.6. Supergene Manganese Deposits

Supergene manganese deposits account for approximately 12.4% of China’s total manganese reserves, ranking second in abundance after sedimentary types. These deposits form through secondary enrichment processes involving weathering, leaching, mobilization, and redeposition of primary manganese ores or manganese-bearing strata under near-surface conditions. Their development is strongly influenced by humid tropical climates, suitable structural and lithological settings, and moderately elevated topography. These factors typically result in shallow burial depths and favorable mining conditions [70,71]. Based on enrichment mechanisms and geomorphological context, supergene manganese deposits in China can be classified into three subtypes, namely (1) residual deposits, (2) leached-enriched deposits, and (3) transported-accumulation deposits.
Residual Deposits: These primarily develop within weathered zones of primary sedimentary manganese-bearing strata or hydrothermal-stratabound manganese deposits. Ore bodies exhibit stratabound or lenticular distributions along oxidized zones, with continuity controlled by the attitude of the protolith and oxidation depth. The ores consist of secondary manganese oxides/hydroxides, dominated by psilomelane, pyrolusite, and nsutite. Representative deposits include the Dongping deposit in Guangxi province and the Xiaodai deposit in Guangdong province [71,80,81].
Leached-Enriched Deposits: These are hosted within structural fracture zones, interlayer fissures, or karst cavities of manganese-bearing strata. Driven by groundwater percolation, manganese is dissolved, transported, and subsequently precipitated in favorable locations to form ore bodies. Ore bodies are predominantly stratiform. The mineral assemblage is mainly composed of pyrolusite and psilomelane, with local occurrences of chalcophanite. Representative deposits include the Lanqiao deposit in Fujian province and the Xinrong deposit in Guangdong province [25,70].
Transported-Accumulation Deposits: These form from the weathering and disintegration of primary manganese-bearing rock series, followed by short-distance transport and accumulation in residual-slope deposits or clay-subclay layers. The ore body attitude conforms to the topographic slope, presenting as stratiform or stratoid layers constrained by the exposure extent of the manganese source layer and the geomorphological configuration. The ores exhibit brecciated and pisolitic textures, consisting of an intimate mixture of various secondary manganese oxides/hydroxides and reddish-brown clay. The principal manganese minerals are psilomelane and pyrolusite, with minor amounts of manganite, hausmannite, braunite, and nsutite. Representative deposits include the Bayi deposit in Guangxi province. The Mugui deposit in Guangxi province also contains accumulation-type mineralization [76,80].

4.3. Spatiotemporal Distribution of Manganese Deposits

Manganese mineralization in China spans a broad geologic timeframe, from the Mesoproterozoic to the Cenozoic, and is closely linked to major supercontinental breakup events. Two principal periods of widespread manganese enrichment in China are recognized: the Neoproterozoic Nanhua Period (780–635 Ma) and the Late Paleozoic to Triassic interval (419–203 Ma) [70,71,77] (Figure 6). Spatially, manganese resources are strongly concentrated in South China, particularly within and around the Yangtze Block, which hosts more than 85% of China’s total reserves. Major resource provinces include Guizhou, Guangxi, Hunan, and Yunnan provinces [74] (Figure 7).

4.3.1. Mesoproterozoic Mineralization Period

Manganese mineralization during the Mesoproterozoic is interpreted to have been influenced by the assembly and subsequent breakup of the Columbia supercontinent. The Yanliao and Yuxi aulacogens, which are rift-related tectonic troughs associated with the North China Block, the Paleo-Asian Ocean, and the Qinling Ocean, emerged as key metallogenic domains during this period [82,83,84]. Extensive marine sedimentary manganese deposits, collectively termed the Jidong-type, developed within the Gaoyuzhuang Formation of the Jixian Group. Representative examples include the Qinjiayu deposit in Hebei province and the Wafangzi deposit in Liaoning province [69,71,74,76]. Smaller manganese occurrences, such as the Madingshan deposit in Henan province, occur within the Mesoproterozoic Ruyang Group of the Yuxi aulacogen [69,71]. These deposits are spatially clustered in the Yanliao-Taihang metallogenic belt (Figure 7).

4.3.2. Neoproterozoic–Early Paleozoic Metallogenic Period

The Grenvillian Orogeny during the late Mesoproterozoic culminated in the assembly of the Rodinia supercontinent. Subsequent lithospheric breakup of Rodinia during the late Neoproterozoic (800–600 Ma) induced widespread continental rifting globally, defining the complete Rodinian supercontinent cycle. The South China Block constituted an integral component of the Rodinia supercontinent. During the breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent, the South China Block underwent a series of rifting events. These include (1) the development of the Nanhua Rift Basin along the Jiangnan Orogenic Belt during the Nanhuan Period (Cryogenian) and (2) the formation of the northern Yangtze continental margin rift basin during the Sinian Period (Ediacaran). Sedimentary manganese deposits are extensively developed within these rift-related basins (Figure 7).
Nanhua Period (780–635 Ma): The disintegration of Rodinia facilitated the development of the Nanhua Rift and its subsidiary basins, including the Wuling and Xuefeng basins, along the southeastern margin of the Yangtze Block. Within these rift-related settings, two principal types of black shale-hosted manganese deposits formed: (1) Datangpo-type deposits, situated in the Wuling Rift Basin, define a northeast-trending metallogenic belt across the eastern Guizhou uplift. These deposits, including Gaodi, Taoziping, and Daotuo in Guizhou province, are classified as giant-scale and exhibit pronounced sedimentary characteristics. They are hosted within black shale-carbonate sequences [36,37,45]. (2) Xiangtan-type deposits, represented by the Minle and Xiangtan deposits in Hunan province, occur in the Xiangdong–Xiangzhong depression of the Xuefeng Rift Basin. These, stratabound to lenticular orebodies, are hosted in organic-rich black shales and are spatially controlled by regional fault systems and sedimentary facies transitions [25,27,28,74].
Sinian–Early Cambrian Period (635–500 Ma): Manganese mineralization during this interval is linked to passive margin rifting that followed Rodinia’s fragmentation. Along the northern margin of the Yangtze Block, the Qinling-Yangtze Intercontinental Rift Basin developed during the Sinian Period. This basin, controlled by the Shangdan Suture Zone, exhibited a roughly E–W trend within the transitional zone between the Yangtze Craton and the South Qinling Orogenic Belt. The extensional regime induced by rifting provided critical accommodation space for marine sedimentary manganese deposits, forming the significant manganese ore belt along the northern Yangtze margin. Deposits within this belt are genetically linked to hydrothermal sedimentation along the margins of the South Qinling Trough. They primarily occur within the black shale–siliceous rock sequence of the Sinian Doushantuo Formation (650–635 Ma). The stratiform orebodies are commonly conformable and situated at the transitional contact between siliceous rocks and carbonates, indicating dual controls by sub-basins and syndepositional faults within the rift basin. Notable examples include the Goulingzi deposit in Gansu province, the Qujiashan deposit in Shaanxi province, and the Gaoyan deposit in Chongqing city [69,77]. Continued extensional tectonism into the Early Cambrian facilitated the formation of phosphorus-manganese deposits, such as the Tuanshangou deposit in Hubei province, which is interpreted to be genetically related to global phosphogenic events [77].

4.3.3. Late Paleozoic–Triassic Metallogenic Period

During the Late Paleozoic, the progressive breakup of the Gondwana supercontinent resulted in the opening of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean between Gondwana and the northern continental blocks. The widespread formation of sedimentary manganese deposits in China during the Late Paleozoic to Triassic (Figure 7) is closely associated with the tectonic evolution of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean and the accompanying microcontinental drift and accretionary processes.
Manganese deposits formed during the Late Devonian to Early Carboniferous (419–359 Ma) in China exhibit a clear spatiotemporal association with the tectonic evolution of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. These deposits are primarily of marine sedimentary and volcanogenic-sedimentary origin and are genetically related to back-arc extensional settings and aulacogen development. They are concentrated within three major tectonic domains: the Youjiang continental margin rift basin of the Yangtze Craton, the Xianggui aulacogen, and the Western Kunlun back-arc basin. The Youjiang basin evolved through three tectonic phases: a syn-rift stage (Late Early Devonian to Late Devonian), a passive margin stage (Early Carboniferous to Early Triassic), and a foreland basin stage (Middle Triassic) [77]. Semi-restricted marine environments during the rifting stage were favorable for manganese precipitation, particularly within the Xialei trough and the eastern segment of the Yizhou trough. Representative deposits such as Xialei and Longtou in Guangxi province formed in marginal facies during peak rifting, underscoring a positive correlation between rift basin evolution and metallogenic intensity [70,73,75,85,86]. The Xianggui aulacogen, a northeast-trending aborted rift extending from Guangxi to central Hunan, hosts stratabound manganese mineralization within shallow-water platform-margin facies. These include marine sedimentary manganese deposits that were subsequently reworked by supergene weathering. Notable examples include the Dongxiangqiao and Houjiangqiao deposits in Hunan province [25,27,69,87]. The recent identification of the Malkansu manganese belt in the Western Kunlun region further emphasizes the metallogenic potential of Late Paleozoic back-arc basins. This belt developed in a rift setting associated with the northward subduction of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean beneath the Tarim Block. Manganese carbonate mineralization in this region is closely linked to submarine hydrothermal activity, with ore-forming components derived from deep-seated hydrothermal fluids [88,89,90,91,92].
Large-scale Permian manganese mineralization (299–252 Ma) in South China is closely related to the evolution of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean and the influence of the Emeishan mantle plume activity, within a back-arc extensional setting related to Gondwana breakup [77]. These manganese deposits formed in intracontinental and continental margin rift systems surrounding the Yangtze Craton [71,93], where deep hydrothermal fluids migrated along synsedimentary faults, leading to precipitation at redox interfaces. Active during the middle Permian Maokou period (270–265 Ma), the Zunyi–Shuicheng rift trough (the largest rift basin on the Yangtze Platform) hosts a series of “Zunyi-type” deposits such as Tongluojing and Shenxi deposits in Guizhou province [25,27,28,37]. Smaller deposits like Hunan’s Qingshuitang in the Xiangzhong depression (southeastern Yangtze margin) formed in shallow waters but also received deep-sourced hydrothermal inputs [77]. Along the Songpan–Ganzi rift on the northwestern Yangtze margin, repeated submarine hydrothermal events during the middle to late Permian formed marine manganese deposits such as Baixian and Gexue in Yunnan province [70,77].
Triassic manganese mineralization (250–203 Ma) in China was controlled by the closure of the eastern Paleo-Tethys Ocean and back-arc extension associated with the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate during the Indosinian orogeny. Manganese deposits mainly formed within rift basins along the South China Block, where extensional tectonics and syndepositional faulting regulated basin morphology, sedimentation, and hydrothermal fluid migration. In the Early Triassic, the Youjiang Rift Belt developed as a remnant Paleo-Tethyan depression along the southern Yangtze margin. NW-trending synsedimentary faults controlled the formation of restricted marine sub-basins and acted as conduits for hydrothermal fluids, leading to manganese precipitation along platform-basin interfaces. Representative manganese deposits include the Dounan deposit in Yunnan province and the Dongping deposit in Guangxi province [77,81,94,95].

4.3.4. Quaternary Metallogenic Period

The spatial and temporal distribution of Quaternary manganese deposits in China (post ~2.6 Ma) is closely linked to Cenozoic tectonic uplift and paleoclimatic evolution. These deposits are predominantly supergene weathering-crust types that developed within karst depressions and synclinal structural zones south of 23 °N, along the southern margin of the Yangtze Block (Figure 5). Their genesis is controlled by the distribution of manganese-rich protoliths, paleogeomorphological settings, and the influence of a monsoonal climate regime [74]. The pronounced spatial specificity of supergene enrichment processes has led to the concentration of Quaternary manganese deposits in tectonically active and climatically sensitive regions, notably southeastern Guangxi, western Guangdong, and southwestern Fujian. These areas now serve as major resource bases for high-grade oxidized manganese ores in China. Representative examples include the Mugui and Bayi deposits in Guangxi province and the Xinyong deposit in Guangdong province [69,71,74,96] (Figure 7).
In summary, the spatiotemporal distribution of manganese deposits in China exhibits clear zonation patterns. Late Mesoproterozoic deposits are primarily restricted to the Yanliao–Yuxi aulacogen in the northeastern North China Block and are characterized by metamorphosed and volcanogenic-sedimentary types. From the Neoproterozoic to the Cenozoic, manganese mineralization became increasingly concentrated within and around the Yangtze Block, forming the extensive “Yangtze Manganese Metallogenic Province” (YMMP). The metallogenic evolution of YMMP demonstrates both a temporal and spatial migration, beginning in the central Nanhua Basin during the Nanhua Period, shifting to the northern Qinling–Yangtze intercontinental rift during the Sinian–Cambrian, to the eastern Xianggui and southern Youjiang basins in the Devonian–Early Carboniferous, the western Zunyi–Shuicheng and eastern Xianggui basins in the Permian, the southern Youjiang basin in the Triassic, and finally to regions south of 23 °N in the Quaternary. Marine sedimentary and supergene manganese deposits constitute the dominant genetic types throughout this metallogenic sequence (Figure 6 and Figure 7).

5. Recent Advances in Metallogenic Theories

Recent advances by Chinese researchers have significantly enhanced understanding of the genesis, metallogenic mechanisms, and ore-forming processes of marine sedimentary manganese deposits in China. These developments build upon classical global models while incorporating insights derived from China’s unique geological context, leading to refined conceptual frameworks.
Internationally recognized models of sedimentary manganese mineralization include “the manganese pump model”, “the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) model”, and “the Baltic Sea model”. The manganese pump model proposes that under anoxic marine conditions, dissolved Mn2+ is oxidized at redox boundaries and subsequently precipitated, with diagenesis ultimately transforming these precipitates into ore [53,97]. The OMZ model emphasizes the role of high primary productivity in promoting oxygen-deficient conditions, facilitating manganese accumulation at redox interfaces [24,98,99,100]. The Baltic Sea model attributes manganese enrichment to periodic oxidation events associated with seasonally oxygenated bottom waters in restricted marine settings [61,101]. These models consistently emphasize redox conditions as the primary control on manganese mineralization. However, they do not adequately explain key characteristics of China’s manganese deposits, particularly the occurrence of rhodochrosite-rich ores in central fault-controlled rift basins, such as those of the Datangpo type, while the basin margins remain devoid of significant manganese mineralization. In addition, existing models often underrepresent the contributions of synsedimentary tectonism, deep-sourced hydrothermal input, and microbial mediation in manganese ore formation.
To address limitations in existing genetic models, researchers have proposed a novel framework, a sedimentary-exhalative Mn mineralization model driven by paleo-hydrocarbon seepage, to explain the formation of Datangpo-type manganese deposits. Additionally, this model, developed through systematic investigations of the supergiant manganese deposit cluster in Guizhou province, is the first to incorporate deep-sourced components into the ore-forming system (Figure 8). It suggests that during the Nanhua rifting associated with the breakup of Rodinia, Mn- and hydrocarbon-bearing deep-sourced hydrothermal fluids ascended along synsedimentary faults. These fluids triggered thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR), reducing SO42− and releasing HCO3. The interaction of Mn2+ with HCO3 in near-surface environments facilitated the precipitation of rhodochrosite, forming ore-bearing hydrothermal reservoirs [36,37,45]. Characteristic mineral assemblages, such as bubble-like, massive, and banded ores identified in the Xixibao deposit in Guizhou province, exhibit a zonal distribution consistent with a hydrothermal facies sequence from central to transitional to marginal zones (Figure 8). This spatial pattern highlights the coupled control of rift-related tectonics and hydrothermal fluid flow on manganese mineralization [102], thereby refining and extending traditional terrigenous sedimentation-based genetic models.
Host black shales of the Datangpo-type manganese deposits are enriched in total organic carbon (TOC), commonly > 5% [103,104]. Laminated manganese ores frequently display microtextures such as filamentous and stromatolitic structures [105]. Furthermore, pyrite δ34S values within these deposits are unusually high (+40‰ to +72‰) [40], which cannot be fully accounted for by TSR processes alone [39]. Subsequent studies indicate that the high organic matter content not only promotes reduction of manganese oxides but also facilitates microbial sulfate reduction (MSR), driving the decomposition of organic substrates and enabling the precipitation of rhodochrosite with microbially induced sedimentary features [105]. This biogeochemical mechanism also explains the anomalously heavy sulfur isotope signatures of pyrite [40]. Importantly, the rift-related tectonic context enhances coupling between hydrothermal processes and microbial activity, jointly contributing to large-scale marine sedimentary manganese enrichment [41,47,48].
Recent investigations further establish that sedimentary manganese deposits in China predominantly formed within intracontinental and intercontinental rift systems, fault-bounded depressions (aulacogens), and passive continental margin rift basins [77,105]. Their spatial and temporal occurrence is closely tied to the fragmentation stages of global supercontinent cycles. High-precision U–Pb geochronology (664.2 ± 2.4 Ma) constrains the main mineralization event of the Datangpo Formation to an interglacial interval following the Sturtian glaciation, underscoring the control exerted by global climatic and tectonic transitions on manganese mineralization [41,106]. Building on this framework, researchers proposed a refined ore-forming model linked to the glacial-interglacial transition. Rift basins generated during Rodinia’s disintegration in the mid-Neoproterozoic provided accommodation space for manganese deposition [105]. Hydrothermal fluids enriched in Mn migrated upward along synsedimentary faults from the basin floor. Post-Sturtian global warming intensified continental weathering and enhanced the influx of glacial meltwater. These factors, together with reestablished oceanic circulation, promoted a stratified water column with oxic surface and anoxic bottom waters. This interglacial regime favored microbial resurgence, elevated primary productivity, and intensified organic matter degradation, thereby amplifying manganese redox cycling. Manganese carbonate precipitation occurred at the redox interface through microbially mediated carbonate precipitation (Figure 9). Additionally, the Nanhua Basin, as a semi-restricted marine environment, likely experienced salinity fluctuations during post-glacial climatic oscillations, influencing redox stability and manganese precipitation. Studies examined paleosalinity proxies (e.g., B/Ga ratios) and redox-sensitive parameters to evaluate these dynamics [38]. Their results indicate that enhanced submarine hydrothermal activity raised bottom-water salinity, stimulating microbial activity and anoxic conditions. Concurrent anaerobic decomposition of organic matter increased the CO32−/HCO3 ratio in seawater. Under mildly alkaline conditions induced by glacial meltwater input, Mn2+ became supersaturated and precipitated as high-grade manganese carbonate layers.
Collectively, these studies support a comprehensive metallogenic model for Datangpo-type manganese deposits in South China, emphasizing a coupled “tectonic-hydrothermal-microbial” ore-forming system operative during the Nanhua period.

6. Recent Trends in Prospecting Mn Ore Deposits

In the past decade, manganese exploration in China has predominantly targeted marine sedimentary-type deposits, supplemented by investigations of supergene-type deposits. Driven by the newly developed metallogenic model emphasizing tectonic-hydrothermal-microbial coupling, and facilitated by advances in geophysical exploration technologies, substantial progress has been made in key metallogenic belts, particularly along the Southeastern Yangtze Platform Margin Metallogenic Belt and the Nanpanjiang-Youjiang Rift Metallogenic Belt. These efforts have resulted in the identification of over 1.25 billion tonnes of newly proven manganese resources [25] (Table 3).

6.1. Breakthroughs in Deep and Peripheral Exploration of Metallogenic Belts

Historically, manganese exploration in China was largely restricted to depths shallower than 800 m. Recent integration of high-resolution gravity and magnetic surveys, three-dimensional seismic imaging, and deep drilling techniques has extended effective exploration depths to 800–2000 m.
On the Southeastern Yangtze Platform Margin Metallogenic Belt, significant breakthroughs have been achieved in both deep and peripheral zones. Four concealed supergiant manganese deposits have been discovered in the Tongren region of Guizhou province, namely the Gaodi, Daotuo, Taoziping, and Xixibao deposits [37,45,48,107]. For example, the Gaodi deposit was delineated using 3D seismic techniques, revealing a deep-seated orebody containing 161 million tonnes of newly identified manganese carbonate resources. This orebody, averaging 7.35 m in thickness and occurring at depths of 1400–1950 m, comprises 44.7% ore with manganese content greater than 25%. It represents the first recognition of an “ore nucleus” enrichment mechanism within the central zone of a rift basin [102]. Similarly, the Daotuo deposit contains 142 million tonnes of manganese ore, ranging from 773 to 1499 m in depth, with an average thickness of 4.54 m and an average grade of 19.9% [25]. Cumulatively, newly identified manganese resources in the Tongren region exceed 660 million tonnes, accounting for 52.8% of the national total during the same reporting period.
Additional findings include the Shenxi large deposit and several medium-sized deposits in the Zunyi region of Guizhou province [44,108,109,110]. In the Intra-Yangtze Platform Metallogenic Belt, exploration targeting the Permian Maokou Formation employed controlled-source audio-frequency magnetotellurics (CSAMT) in conjunction with the updated metallogenic model. This approach led to the discovery of the concealed Shenxi deposit of the “Zunyi-type”. The orebody, situated at depths of 1500–1650 m, is estimated to host approximately 20 million tonnes of carbonate manganese resources, filling a longstanding exploration gap within the deep structural depressions of northern Guizhou [44,110,111,112].
Within the Nanpanjiang-Youjiang Rift Metallogenic Belt, exploration of the Xialei deposit in Guangxi province applied an integrated approach combining geochemical anomalies and magnetic survey data to target shallow mineralization. CSAMT and audio magnetotelluric (AMT) inversion imaging further clarified the geometry of manganese-bearing structures. Ore-bearing horizons were located within the Upper Devonian Wuzhishan Formation, leading to the delineation of five new prospective targets. Deep drilling confirmed that orebodies are distributed in a step-like configuration along synsedimentary faults. Individual orebodies reach up to 12 m in thickness, with manganese grades increasing from 18% near the surface to 25% at depth, collectively contributing approximately 35 million tonnes of newly defined manganese carbonate resources [70].

6.2. Breakthroughs in Frontier Stratigraphy

Recent advances in manganese exploration across the northwestern Paleo-Tethys domain have yielded significant discoveries. In the Markansu area of the western Tianshan Accretionary Metallogenic Belt, application of the structural–stratigraphic correlation method resulted in the discovery of several contiguous marine sedimentary manganese deposits (Muhe, Aertuokanashi, and Markansu), hosted at the Ordovician–Silurian clastic-carbonate transition [88,89,113]. Orebodies in the above deposits extend over 40 km and reach depths of 475 m, with newly identified resources exceeding 100 million tonnes, marking the largest Mn discovery in northern China in recent decades. The Muhe deposit alone contains 8.18 million tonnes of newly proven Mn carbonate resources with Mn grades ranging from 11% to 43% and averaging 21.7% [25].
In the eastern Kunlun region of Qinghai province, Triassic carbonate strata host several medium-sized Mn deposits, including Santonggou, Hongshuihe, Langmuri, and Caiyuanzi. These deposits collectively contain ~30 million tonnes of Mn resources with grades of 12–22%. The mineralization is structurally controlled by intraplate rift-related faults and exhibits evidence of hydrothermal overprinting, representing a major exploration breakthrough along the northeastern margin of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau [27]. Additional manganese occurrences have also been reported in the Haliheide and Kuangoubei areas.
In South China, the Permian Gufeng Formation has emerged as a key target. Lithofacies-paleogeographic reconstructions revealed deep-water siliceous basin conditions favorable for Mn accumulation in the Qiyang–Lingling Basin, leading to the discovery of ~75.5 million tonnes of Mn carbonate resources in the Dongxiangqiao and Daotianchong deposits in Hunan province. A deep borehole at the Shuibutou deposit intercepted a 5.2 m thick orebody grading 22.3% Mn, confirming the Gufeng Formation’s interbedded siliceous rock–mudstone unit as a significant ore-bearing horizon in China [25,71,74,75,87].
In the Nanpanjiang–Youjiang Rift Metallogenic Belt, sequence stratigraphy and paleogeographic reconstructions have guided the identification of Mn carbonate deposits within Carboniferous and Triassic sequences. The Nongzhu and Tangling targets in central Guangxi province host resources exceeding 80 million tonnes with grades of 9–18% [46,65]. In the Lower Triassic Beisi Formation, large-scale deposits at Dongping and Fuwan contain ~310 million tonnes of Mn carbonate resources overlain by secondary oxide enrichment zones, with Dongping hosting 210 million tonnes (10–14% Mn) and Fuwan ~100 million tonnes (5–10%) [37,44,71,72].

7. Conclusions and Future Perspectives

China’s manganese mineral resources are characterized by a predominant occurrence of low-grade ores and small-to-medium-sized deposits, with only 6.7% of reserves classified as high-grade (Mn > 25% for carbonate ores and >30% for oxide ores). The resource endowment is marked by complex mineral compositions, high phosphorus and iron impurities, and fine-grained ore texture, posing significant challenges for beneficiation.
Manganese deposits in China are mainly divided into seven major genetic types. Among them, the marine sedimentary type accounts for 71% of the national manganese resource amount, being the most dominant type, followed by the supergene type (12.4%) and the hydrothermally overprinted stratabound type (7%), with relatively lower proportions for the remaining types. Geotectonically, over 85% of reserves are concentrated in the Yangtze Block and adjacent orogenic belts, which are controlled by rift basin systems during the Neoproterozoic Nanhua period and Late Paleozoic Devonian–Permian epochs.
Recent studies have revealed a “tectono-hydrothermal-microbial” coupling mechanism for sedimentary manganese deposits, particularly in the “Datangpo-type” rift basins, where mantle-derived Mn-rich fluids interacted with microbial activities to facilitate mineralization. Exploration breakthroughs in the past decade, enabled by integrated geophysical techniques (e.g., CSAMT and 3D seismic), have expanded resource bases in deep (>800 m) and previously overlooked strata (e.g., Permian Gufeng Formation and Triassic strata), adding over 12.5 billion tons of proven reserves.
Current metallogenic theories remain fragmented, focusing primarily on Neoproterozoic and Permian deposits while lacking systematic comparisons across the Sinian–Mesozoic continuum. Future research should prioritize integrating cross-era metallogenic regularities, particularly in understudied northern blocks (e.g., North China Craton and northern Yangtze margin), to unlock unrecognized potential in tectonic settings like the Qilian–Tianshan fold belts.
Looking forward, future exploration efforts should prioritize the application of predictive metallogenic modeling based on basin evolution, structural architecture, and sequence stratigraphy. The integration of machine learning with big data analytics from multi-source geoscientific datasets may offer new avenues for prospectivity mapping.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.Y. and Z.W.; validation, D.L.; formal analysis, E.P.; investigation, Y.G. and D.Y.; resources, Y.G. and D.Y.; data curation, E.P.; writing—original draft preparation, E.P.; writing—review and editing, J.Y., Z.W., D.L., Y.G., D.Y. and Y.C.; visualization, D.L. and E.P.; supervision, X.G., J.Y. and Z.W.; project administration, Y.C.; funding acquisition, X.G. and J.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Department of Science and Technology of Guizhou Province under the Guizhou Provincial Major Scientific and Technological Program (Grant No. QKH-ZDZX [2024]017) entitled “Technology and Demonstration of Efficient Leaching and Cascade Deep Purification for Manganese Carbonate Concentrate”.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study can be found in the literature cited. No unpublished datasets or sensitive information are involved in this research.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Proportion of global manganese reserves by country in 2025 [18,19,20,21,22].
Figure 1. Proportion of global manganese reserves by country in 2025 [18,19,20,21,22].
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Figure 2. Global manganese mine production and China’s proportion of total output from 2019 to 2024 [18,29,30,31,32].
Figure 2. Global manganese mine production and China’s proportion of total output from 2019 to 2024 [18,29,30,31,32].
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Figure 3. Distribution map of manganese metallogenic belts in China (WSG 84) [69,70].
Figure 3. Distribution map of manganese metallogenic belts in China (WSG 84) [69,70].
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Figure 4. Reserve proportions of different manganese deposit types in China.
Figure 4. Reserve proportions of different manganese deposit types in China.
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Figure 5. Spatial distribution diagram of different types of manganese deposits in China (WSG 84) (modified after [77]).
Figure 5. Spatial distribution diagram of different types of manganese deposits in China (WSG 84) (modified after [77]).
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Figure 6. Geological age of manganese ore resource in China [18,29,30,31,32].
Figure 6. Geological age of manganese ore resource in China [18,29,30,31,32].
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Figure 7. Distribution of manganese deposits in different historical periods of China (WSG 84) (modified after [77]).
Figure 7. Distribution of manganese deposits in different historical periods of China (WSG 84) (modified after [77]).
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Figure 8. Metallogenic system and ore-forming schematic diagram of “Datangpo-type” manganese deposits. (a) A schematic cartoon illustrating the inferred relationships that integrate all field observations. Arrows in the figure indicate the migration pathway of hydrocarbon gases; (b) a plan view of “Datangpo-type” manganese metallogenic system (modified after [36]).
Figure 8. Metallogenic system and ore-forming schematic diagram of “Datangpo-type” manganese deposits. (a) A schematic cartoon illustrating the inferred relationships that integrate all field observations. Arrows in the figure indicate the migration pathway of hydrocarbon gases; (b) a plan view of “Datangpo-type” manganese metallogenic system (modified after [36]).
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Figure 9. Formation model for manganese deposits in Nanhua Basin during the Sturtian glacial and interglacial period. (A) A schematic cartoon illustrating the basin covered by an ice sheet during Sturtian glaciation, with accumulation of manganese and hydrogen sulfide in the reducing water column environment facilitated by basal hydrothermal activity; (B) a schematic cartoon depicting the scenario after ice-sheet melting, where redox stratification developed in the basin water column, with intermittent oxidizing conditions in bottom water driven by oxidizing bottom currents, illustrating the synchronous yet heterotopic distribution of cap dolostone and manganese mineralization; (C) a schematic cartoon of the microbial mineralization mechanism for manganese deposits (modified after [105]).
Figure 9. Formation model for manganese deposits in Nanhua Basin during the Sturtian glacial and interglacial period. (A) A schematic cartoon illustrating the basin covered by an ice sheet during Sturtian glaciation, with accumulation of manganese and hydrogen sulfide in the reducing water column environment facilitated by basal hydrothermal activity; (B) a schematic cartoon depicting the scenario after ice-sheet melting, where redox stratification developed in the basin water column, with intermittent oxidizing conditions in bottom water driven by oxidizing bottom currents, illustrating the synchronous yet heterotopic distribution of cap dolostone and manganese mineralization; (C) a schematic cartoon of the microbial mineralization mechanism for manganese deposits (modified after [105]).
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Table 1. Metallogenic belts of manganese deposits in China.
Table 1. Metallogenic belts of manganese deposits in China.
Metallogenic ProvinceMetallogenic BeltMetallogenic AgeRepresentative Deposits
North China Craton DomainYanliao-Taihang Metallogenic BeltMesoproterozoicDongshuichang (Tianjin), Wafangzi (Liaoning)
Yangtze Platform DomainPeri-Yangtze Platform Marginal Metallogenic BeltMeso-NeoproterozoicGucheng, Dongbawan (Hubei)
Southeastern Yangtze Platform Margin Metallogenic BeltEarly Sinian and Middle OrdovicianDatangpo (Guizhou), Minle, Ziganshan (Hunan)
Northern Yangtze Platform Margin Metallogenic BeltLate Sinian–Early CambrianLijiaying, Tiantaishan (Shaanxi)
Western Yangtze Platform Margin Metallogenic BeltMiddle-Late Ordovician and Middle-Late TriassicQiaodingshan, Huya (Sichuan)
Intra-Yangtze Platform Metallogenic BeltLate Carboniferous–Early PermianTongluojing (Guizhou), Gexue (Yunnan)
South China Orogen DomainNanpanjiang-Youjiang Basin Metallogenic BeltLate Devonian–Early Carboniferous and Early-Middle TriassicMugui, Xialei, Longtou, Dongping (Guangxi); Dounan, Baixian (Yunnan)
Hunan-Guangxi-Guangdong Basin Metallogenic BeltMiddle-Late Devonian and Early-Late PermianHoujiangqiao, Dongxiangqiao (Hunan); Xiaodai (Guangdong); Bayi, Pingle (Guangxi)
Southwestern Fujian-Eastern Guangdong Metallogenic BeltLate Paleozoic–Early TriassicLanqiao, Miaoqian (Fujian)
Sanjiang Orogen DomainSouthwestern Yunnan Tethyan Metallogenic BeltProterozoic, Permian, and TriassicXiaolongtan, Baye, Laoguang (Yunnan)
Qilian-Tianshan Orogen DomainQilian Orogen Metallogenic BeltEarly PaleozoicHeixiakou, Bianmagou, Zhongbao (Gansu)
Tianshan Accretionary Metallogenic BeltLate PaleozoicMotuosala, Kalanggou, Zhaosu (Xinjiang)
Kunlun Orogen Metallogenic BeltMesoproterozoic and CarboniferousAoertuokanashi (Xinjiang); Langmuri (Qinghai)
Table 2. Genetic classification of manganese deposits in China and their characteristics.
Table 2. Genetic classification of manganese deposits in China and their characteristics.
Deposit TypeResource Proportion (%)Sub-typeFormation EnvironmentHost RockMain Metallogenic Age
Marine sedimentary71Carbonate Mn deposits in black shalesContinental rift-related nearshore, semi-enclosed bays or restricted basinsInterbedded carbonaceous shales, siliceous rocks, etc.Nanhuan, Permian
Mn-oxide-carbonate deposits in fine clastic rocksShallow marine environments along continental marginsClastic-carbonates Devonian
Oxide-carbonate Mn deposits in carbonate rocksShallow marine platform marginsDolomite, silty dolomite, dolomitic limestoneMesoproterozoic, Carboniferous
Carbonate Mn deposits in siliceous-argillaceous limestoneMarginal shelf settingsSiliceous limestone, argillaceous limestoneTriassic
Continental lacustrine sedimentary0.6Shallow lacustrine or swamp environmentsMudstone and claystonePermian
Volcanic-sedimentary4Orogenic rift troughs and marginal zones, associated with volcanic activityInterbedded siliceous rocks, carbonates, etc.Carboniferous, Sinian
Hydrothermal Overprinted Stratabound7Post-depositional hydrothermal alteration in sedimentary-tectonic settingsCarbonate rocksDevonian
Metamorphosed4Regional metamorphic depositsRegional metamorphism of primary marine sedimentary formationsPhyllites, argillaceous siltstonesTriassic, Cambrian
Contact metamorphic depositsContact aureoles of magmatic intrusionsMetamorphosed slates or greenschistsIndosinian, Yanshanian
Supergene12.4Residual cap depositsWeathered zones of primary depositsCarbonate rocksQuaternary
Leached depositsStructural fracture zones, interlayer fissures, karst cavitiesClastic rocks, carbonate rocksQuaternary
Accumulation depositsResidual-slope deposits, clay-subclay layersEluvium, deluvium Quaternary
Magmatic-Hydrothermal1Post-magmatic or volcanic hydrothermal environmentLimestone, argillaceous limestone, schistYanshanian
Table 3. Newly discovered manganese resources in China.
Table 3. Newly discovered manganese resources in China.
Host DepositMineralization AgeMetallogenic BeltOre-Bearing HorizonDeposit TypeOre TypeNewly Added Resource/Estimated Reserve 1 (104 tonnes)
Gaodi (Guizhou)NanhuaSoutheastern Yangtze Platform Margin Metallogenic BeltDatangpo FormationMarine sedimentaryMainly Mn carbonate66,000 2/
16,500
Daotuo (Guizhou)
Taoziping (Guizhou)
Xixibao (Guizhou)
Muhu, Aoertuokanashi, Markan (Xinjiang)Ordovician–SilurianTianshan Accretionary Metallogenic BeltKalaatehe FormationMarine sedimentaryMainly Mn carbonate10,000/
2170
Xialei (Guangxi)DevonianNanpanjiang-Youjiang Basin Metallogenic BeltWuzhishan FormationMarine sedimentaryMn carbonate and Mn oxide3500/
700
Lilei-Tangling (Guangxi)CarboniferousNanpanjiang-Youjiang Basin Metallogenic BeltDatangpo FormationMarine sedimentaryMainly Mn carbonate8000/
1080
Shenxi (Guizhou)PermianIntra-Yangtze Platform Metallogenic BeltMaokou FormationMarine sedimentaryMainly Mn carbonate2000/
398
Dongxiangqiao, Daotianchong (Hunan)PermianHunan-Guangxi-Guangdong Basin Metallogenic BeltGufeng FormationMarine sedimentaryMainly Mn carbonate7600/
1520
Santonggoubei, Hongshuihe (Qinghai)TriassicQilianshan Orogen Metallogenic BeltKuhai FormationMarine sedimentaryMainly Mn carbonate3000/
510
Dongping (Guangxi)TriassicNanpanjiang-Youjiang Basin Metallogenic BeltBeisi FormationMarine sedimentary and SupergeneMarine sedimentary and Supergene21,000/
2520
Fuwan (Guangxi)TriassicNanpanjiang-Youjiang Basin Metallogenic BeltBeisi FormationMarine sedimentary and SupergeneMarine sedimentary and Supergene10,000/
750
1 Estimated reserves were calculated by multiplying the newly added manganese resources by the average ore grade of the corresponding deposit. 2 The total newly added manganese resources here come from the Gaodi, Daotuo, Taoziping, and Xixibao deposits.
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Peng, E.; Yang, J.; Wang, Z.; Li, D.; Gao, Y.; Yan, D.; Chen, Y.; Guo, X. Manganese Resources in China: An Overview of Resource Status and Recent Advances in Metallogenic Models and Exploration. Minerals 2025, 15, 859. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15080859

AMA Style

Peng E, Yang J, Wang Z, Li D, Gao Y, Yan D, Chen Y, Guo X. Manganese Resources in China: An Overview of Resource Status and Recent Advances in Metallogenic Models and Exploration. Minerals. 2025; 15(8):859. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15080859

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Peng, Erke, Jianguang Yang, Zhilin Wang, Dong Li, Yuanxing Gao, Danyang Yan, Yanfei Chen, and Xueyi Guo. 2025. "Manganese Resources in China: An Overview of Resource Status and Recent Advances in Metallogenic Models and Exploration" Minerals 15, no. 8: 859. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15080859

APA Style

Peng, E., Yang, J., Wang, Z., Li, D., Gao, Y., Yan, D., Chen, Y., & Guo, X. (2025). Manganese Resources in China: An Overview of Resource Status and Recent Advances in Metallogenic Models and Exploration. Minerals, 15(8), 859. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15080859

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