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Article

Petrogenesis of Middle Jurassic Syenite-Granite Suites and Early Cretaceous Granites with Associated Enclaves in Southwestern Zhejiang, SE China: Implications for Subduction-Related Tectonic Evolution Beneath Northeastern Cathaysia Block

by
Yu Wang
1,2,
Haoyuan Lan
1,2,3,*,
Chong Jin
4 and
Yuhuang Zhang
5
1
Key Lab of Submarine Geosciences and Prospecting Techniques, MOE and College of Marine Geosciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
2
Laboratory for Marine Mineral Resources, Qingdao Marine Science and Technology Center, Qingdao 266237, China
3
Qingdao Institute of Marine Geology, Qingdao 266237, China
4
Zhejiang Institute of Geosciences, Hangzhou 310007, China
5
Foshan Geological Survey Center, Guangdong Geological Bureau, Foshan 528000, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2025, 15(5), 474; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050474
Submission received: 20 March 2025 / Revised: 18 April 2025 / Accepted: 28 April 2025 / Published: 30 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Mantle–Crust Interactions for Petrogenesis and Ore-Forming Processes)
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Abstract

:
Late Mesozoic magmatism in Southeast China extensively reworked the Cathaysia Block’s crust, linked to the Paleo-Pacific Plate subduction beneath East Asia. The northeastern Cathaysia Block, largely covered by Cretaceous volcanic-sedimentary basins, has limited Jurassic exposure to Early Cretaceous intrusions, which provides critical insights into deep crust-mantle processes. In this study, we present zircon U-Pb geochronology and Hf isotope, whole-rock geochemistry, and Sr-Nd isotopes of the Middle Jurassic syenite-granite suites and Early Cretaceous granites with enclaves in the Qingyuan area (SW Zhejiang Province) to constrain their petrogenesis and tectonic significance. Middle Jurassic syenites and alkali-feldspar granites (169–167 Ma) exhibit calc-alkaline to shoshonitic affinities and weakly peraluminous compositions. Early Cretaceous granites (134 Ma) and their enclaves (136 Ma) are high-K calc-alkaline and weakly peraluminous to metaluminous. All samples show LILE and LREE enrichment, HFSE depletion, and negative Eu and Sr anomalies, with only syenites displaying negative Ce anomalies. We suggest that the Middle Jurassic syenites originated from the partial melting of an enriched lithospheric mantle influenced by subduction-related metasomatism. Alkali-feldspar granites derived from partial melting of the basement of the Cathaysia Block. Early Cretaceous granites formed by partial melting of lower crustal mafic rocks, with enclaves representing earlier crystallization products, which were then mechanically mixed with granites. We propose the NE Cathaysia Block underwent significant reworking from the Middle Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous. Middle Jurassic syenites formed in a compressional setting linked to Paleo-Pacific Plate subduction, while Early Cretaceous magmatism reflects lithospheric extension and crust-mantle interaction triggered by slab rollback.

1. Introduction

The East Asian continental margin underwent a fundamental tectonic transition from passive to active regimes during the Mesozoic, with Southeast China (SE China) (Figure 1a) serving as a critical region for deciphering this geodynamic transformation [1,2,3,4,5]. Late Mesozoic tectono-thermal events episodically reworked the continental crust through widespread magmatism, characterized by extensive intrusive and volcanic activity [6,7,8,9]. Jurassic-Cretaceous magmatism in SE China reflects a complex interplay between subduction dynamics, lithospheric thinning, and crust-mantle interactions [10,11,12]. While most scholars agree on the development of an active continental margin status during this period [13,14,15], significant debates persist regarding the timing and mechanisms of Paleo-Pacific Plate subduction [8,16]. Early Mesozoic magmatism in this region has been attributed to the Indosinian collisional orogeny or intraplate reactivation of the Wuyi-Yunkai orogenic belt, whereas Late Mesozoic magmatism is widely linked to Paleo-Pacific Plate subduction [1,17]. However, recent studies propose an Early Mesozoic initiation of subduction followed by slab break-off [18,19].
Late Mesozoic intrusive rocks in SE China exhibit a distinct inland-to-coastal younging trend [14,20]. Jurassic (180–145 Ma) magmatism, concentrated in the inland Nanling and Wuyi Mountain regions, is interpreted as the product of thickened lower crustal melting under compressional regimes [1,9,21,22]. However, the geodynamic drivers remain contentious, with proposal mechanisms including subduction [21], intraplate extension [23], or orogenic collapse [19]. Early Cretaceous (145–100 Ma) magmatism migrated coastward, featuring I- to A-type granites, syenites, and mafic intrusions [16,24,25]. Syenites from this period exhibit elevated K2O and LREE enrichment, interpreted as melts from metasomatized lithospheric mantle interacting with crustal components [10]. Coexisting granites display higher SiO2 and transitional I-A type signatures, reflecting anatexis of ancient crust with mantle-derived inputs [26,27]. Notably, Cretaceous magmatism was concentrated in present coastal areas, correlates with the transition from Paleo-Pacific (Izanagi) to Pacific Plate subduction [5,6,11,28]. This period also marked a shift from Andean-type to Western Pacific-type plate margins [24,29].
Late Mesozoic magmatism predominantly reworked the Cathaysia Block, yet critical uncertainties persist, particularly regarding magma sources, evolution, and geodynamic processes. In the northeastern Cathaysia Block, extensive Cretaceous volcanic-sedimentary basins obscure early Late Mesozoic magmatic-tectonic records. Studying intrusive rocks and their enclaves provides critical insights into deep crust-mantle interactions and tectonic evolution. However, Jurassic intrusions are sparsely exposed in coastal SE China, and their magmatic activities and tectonic settings remain poorly constrained. In this study, we present zircon U-Pb-Hf isotopes, whole-rock geochemistry, and Sr-Nd isotopes of the representative Middle Jurassic syenites and alkali-feldspar granites, and Early Cretaceous granites hosting intermediate enclaves in the Qingyuan area, southwest Zhejiang Province, northeastern (NE) Cathaysia Block, aims to constrain their petrogenesis, magma source heterogeneity and constrain the evolution of Paleo-Pacific subduction dynamics.

2. Geological Background and Samples

The South China continent comprises the Cathaysia Block in the southeast and the Yangtze Craton in the northwest [30,31,32] (Figure 1a). SE China, situated within the Cathaysia Block, preserves a Precambrian metamorphic basement dominated by Paleoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic metamorphic rocks, including the Badu, Longquan, and Chencai Groups [33,34,35,36]. Late Mesozoic tectono-thermal events extensively reworked SE China, accompanied by large-scale Jurassic–Cretaceous magmatism, predominantly felsic with subordinate intermediate–basaltic compositions [8,37,38]. Jurassic magmatism, mainly granitoids, is concentrated in present inland regions, while Cretaceous magmatism, characterized by widespread volcanism, dominates present coastal areas [1,5,39,40]. Zhejiang Province is traversed by three major deep fault zones from northwest to southeast: the Jiangshan-Shaoxing Fault, the Yuyao-Lishui Fault, and the Changle-Nan’ao Fault [41,42].
The Qingyuan County, located in southwestern Zhejiang Province within the northeastern (NE) Cathaysia Block (Figure 1b), exhibits limited exposures of pre-Mesozoic strata and basement metamorphic rocks. The stratigraphic sequence comprises the Lower-Middle Jurassic Fengping Formation and the Lower Cretaceous Gaowu and Xishantou Formations of Yongkang Group. The Fengping Formation is characterized by quartz sandstone-siltstone and continental coal-bearing sediments interbedded with volcanic rocks. The Gaowu Formation consists predominantly of gray tuff, whereas the Xishantou Formation features purplish-gray to gray tuff interbedded with tuffaceous siltstone and mudstone.
This study focuses on two plutons in Qingyuan County: the Middle Jurassic Kengxi complex and the Early Cretaceous Xunkeng pluton (Figure 2). In the study area, the Lower Jurassic is represented by the Fengping Formation, while the Upper Jurassic is dominated by the Gaowu and Xishantou Formations.
Fresh Middle Jurassic syenite and alkali-feldspar granite samples were collected from the Kengxi pluton, located in Kengxi Village, north Qingyuan County (Figure 2). These intrusives intrude into the Early Jurassic Fengping Formation, with syenites exposed in the northern sector and alkali-feldspar granites in the southern sector. The syenites exhibit medium- to fine-grained granular textures (Figure 3a,b). The mineral composition includes alkali feldspar (45%–50%), plagioclase (20%–30%), amphibole (30%–35%) and quartz (<5%) (Figure 3b), with accessory zircon and apatite. The alkali-feldspar granites display medium- to fine-grained granular textures (Figure 3c,d), composing alkali feldspar (50%–60%), plagioclase (20%–30%), amphibole (15%–20%) and quartz (5%–10%) (Figure 3e), accompanied by accessory zircon and apatite.
Early Cretaceous granite and its enclaves were sampled from the Xunkeng pluton in Xunkeng Village, southwestern Qingyuan County (Figure 2). This pluton is mainly granite with its enclaves. The granite samples exhibit fine-grained granular textures (Figure 3f) featuring mineral grain sizes of 0.2 to 2 mm. The mineral composition of the granite includes alkali feldspar (25%–35%), plagioclase (20%–30%), quartz (25%–30%), amphibole (5%–10%) (Figure 3g), with accessory zircon and apatite. Enclaves within the granite, some exceeding 30 cm in size, display sharp angular to subrounded boundaries (Figure 3h). These gray enclaves exhibit medium- to fine-grained textures with grain sizes of 1 to 3 mm. Their mineral composition consists of quartz (10%–15%), plagioclase (40%–50%), alkali feldspar (15%–20%), and amphibole (15%–20%) (Figure 3i).

3. Analytical Methods

3.1. Zircon U-Pb Dating

Zircon U–Pb dating was conducted by LA-ICP-MS at the Testing Center of Shandong Bureau, China Metallurgical Geology Bureau (TCSB, CMGB). Analyses utilized a Thermo Scientific iCAP™ Q ICP-MS (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) coupled to 193 nm ArF excimer Lasers (GeoLasPro, Coherent Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA). Laser parameters were set to a spot size of 24 µm and repetition rate of 5 Hz in this study. Zircon 91500 served as the primary external standard for age calibration [43], while the Plešovice zircon standard (337 ± 0.37 Ma) [44] was analyzed as an unknown to monitor data quality. Detailed analytical procedures, including precision and accuracy assessments, follow those described by [45].

3.2. Whole-Rock Elemental Analysis

Major and trace element compositions of rock samples were performed at the TCSB, CMGB. Major elements were determined by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (Thermo Scientific ARL 9900XP, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) on fused glass disks, with analytical accuracy better than 2%. For trace element analysis, the sample powders were digested in Teflon bombs using a mixture of hydrofluoric and nitric acids. The trace element was measured using a Thermo Scientific X Series 2 ICP-MS (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire, UK). Analytical uncertainties for most trace elements are better than 10%.

3.3. Sr-Nd Isotopic Analysis

Sr–Nd isotopic compositions of rock samples were performed at the Key Laboratory of Crust-Mantle Materials and Environments, Chinese Academy of Sciences, at the University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei., using a Finnigan MAT-262 thermal ionization mass spectrometer (TIMS, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Bremen, Germany). Measured 86Sr/87Sr and 146Nd/144Nd ratios were normalized to reference values of 0.1194 and 0.7219, respectively [46]. Detailed protocols for Sr and Nd separation and measurement are described in [47].

3.4. Zircon Lu-Hf Isotopic Analysis

In-situ zircon Hf isotopic analysis was conducted using a Neptune Plus MC-ICP-MS (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Bremen, Germany) equipped with a Geolas HD excimer ArF laser ablation system (Coherent Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA) at the Wuhan Sample Solution Analytical Technology Co., Ltd., Wuhan, China. A 44 μm laser spot size and energy density of ~7.0 J/cm2 were applied. Detailed analytical procedures and precision are outlined in [48]. Chondritic reference values (176Hf/177Hf = 0.282772, 176Hf/177Hf = 0.0332) [49] and the decay constant λ176Lu = 1.865 × 10−11/a [50] were used for εHf(t) calculations.

4. Results

4.1. Zircon U-Pb Ages

Zircon U-Pb analytical data are presented in Table S1, with representative cathodoluminescence (CL) images and concordia plots shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5. Zircons from syenite sample SC120-3 exhibit euhedral to subhedral morphologies and oscillatory zoning in CL images (Figure 4a). These grains display Th (157–1115 ppm) and U (316–985 ppm) concentrations with Th/U ratios of 0.46–1.19, indicative of magmatic origins. Twenty-six analyses provide 206Pb/238U ages between 164 and 171 Ma. They have a weighted mean age of 167.5 ± 1.0 Ma (MSWD = 0.55, n = 26) (Figure 5a,b), interpreted as the crystallization age during the Middle Jurassic.
Alkali-feldspar granite sample SC116-3 contains zircons with similar oscillatory zoning (Figure 4b). These zircons contain 131–1043 ppm Th, 254–1084 ppm U, and Th/U ratios of 0.34–1.12, consistent with a magmatic origin. Twenty-eight analyses yield 206Pb/238U ages ranging from 165 to 172 Ma. They have a weighted mean age of 169.3 ± 1.1 Ma (MSWD = 0.71, n = 28) (Figure 5c,d), confirming Middle Jurassic magmatism.
Zircon grains from granite sample SC121-5 also contain oscillatory zoning (Figure 4c) with Th (156–4463 ppm), U (122–2250 ppm), and Th/U ratios (0.64–1.98). Twenty-six analyses yield 206Pb/238U ages of 130–140 Ma. These zircons show a weighted mean age of 135.4 ± 1.4 Ma (MSWD = 1.4, n = 20) (Figure 5e,f), representing the crystallization age of the granite.
Zircons from the enclave sample SC121-1 within the granite display oscillatory zoning (Figure 4d), lower Th (110–3388 ppm) and U (110–1628 ppm) concentrations but higher Th/U ratios (0.90–2.70), indicative of a magmatic origin. Fifteen analyses yield 206Pb/238U ages of 132 to 142 Ma and a weighted mean age of 136.5 ± 1.9 Ma (MSWD = 2.5, n = 15) (Figure 5g,h), interpreted as the crystallization age of the enclave. The elevated MSWD for enclaves suggests potential antecrystic or autocrystic contributions, warranting further population analysis [51,52,53].

4.2. Whole-Rock Major Elements

The major and trace elemental compositions of the samples are listed in Table S2. The Middle Jurassic syenite samples have lower SiO2 contents (59.3–61.64 wt. %) than the alkali-feldspar granites (68.63–69.34 wt. %) (Figure 6a). They are characterized by elevated alkali contents (K2O = 2.47–6.34 wt. %, Na2O = 4.03–6.76 wt. %, and K2O/Na2O ratios = 0.37–0.13). They also display weakly peraluminous features (A/CNK = 1.0–1.2, A/NK = 1.1–1.5) (Figure 6b). The syenites samples exhibit higher Al2O3 (18.4–19.46 wt. %), MgO (1.10–1.49 wt. %) and Fe2O3T (3.91–4.40 wt. %) contents than the alkali-feldspar granites (14.86–16.27 wt. %, Al2O3; 0.55–1.04 wt. %, MgO; 2.85–3.29 wt. %, Fe2O3T), with similarly CaO (0.35–4.07 wt. %) (Figure 7). The limited variation in major element compositions suggests minimal magmatic differentiation.
In contrast, the Early Cretaceous granite samples have higher SiO2 contents (70.56–71.85 wt. %) and are enriched in alkali elements (K2O = 4.25–4.57 wt. %, Na2O = 2.93–3.11 wt. %) with higher K2O/Na2O ratios (1.38–1.54). They also show weak peraluminous characteristics with A/CNK of 1.01–1.04 and A/NK of 1.40–1.47 (Figure 6b). These granites have Al2O3 (13.78–14.12 wt. %), CaO (2.08–2.3 wt. %), MgO (0.7–0.84 wt. %) and Fe2O3T (2.49–2.93 wt. %) contents (Figure 7), with limited major element variation.
The intermediate enclaves within the granite exhibit moderate SiO2 contents (61.89–64.45 wt. %) and plot within the quartz monzonite field. They have elevated alkali contents (K2O of 3.51–3.92 wt. %, Na2O of 3.55–4.24 wt. %, K2O/Na2O ratios of 0.83–1.05). These enclaves are also ranging from metaluminous to weakly peraluminous with A/CNK of 0.93–0.99 and A/NK of 1.51–1.60. They have higher contents of Al2O3 (15.84–16.29 wt. %), CaO (3.14–3.89 wt. %), MgO (1.40–1.52 wt. %) and Fe2O3T (4.47–4.54 wt. %) than those of the granites.

4.3. Whole-Rock Trace Elements

Middle Jurassic syenites (ΣREE = 134.6–309.5 ppm) and alkali-feldspar granites (ΣREE = 101.1–149.9 ppm) display right-inclined chondrite-normalized REE patterns (Figure 8a), with light rare earth element (LREE) enrichment. The syenite samples have REE ratios of (La/Yb)N = 9.5–14.5; (La/Sm)N = 3.7–4.3; (Gd/Yb)N = 1.7–2.3 with negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.53–0.66). Additionally, some of them display notable negative Ce anomalies. The alkali-feldspar granites have higher (La/Yb)N (13.3–43.0), (La/Sm)N (4.0–7.0) and (Gd/Yb)N (2.3–4.1) with obvious negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.43–0.55). Primitive mantle-normalized spidergrams (Figure 8b) show large ion lithophile elements (LILEs; e.g., Rb, Th, U) enrichment and high field strength elements (HFSEs; e.g., Nb, Ta, Zr) depletion, with minor Ba and Sr depletion.
Early Cretaceous granites (ΣREE = 202.4–240.2 ppm) exhibit right-inclined, indicating LREE enrichment ((La/Yb)N = 12.4–15.7; (La/Sm)N = 5.3–5.9; (Gd/Yb)N = 1.7–2.0) with obvious negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.40–0.43), but no Ce anomaly. Compared to the Middle Jurassic samples, the granites display stronger LREE enrichment. They are similarly enriched in LILEs (e.g., Rb, Th, U) but depleted in Nb, Ta, Zr and Sr.
The enclaves within the granite have ∑REE concentrations of 223.1–244.1 ppm. Their chondrite-normalized REE patterns are right-inclined, with LREE enrichment ((La/Yb)N = 9.1–10.7; (La/Sm)N = 4.5–4.9; (Gd/Yb)N = 1.4–1.6) with similar negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.46–0.52). Like the granites, the enclaves are enriched in LILEs (e.g., Rb, Th, U) but depleted in Nb, Ta and Sr. Zr and Hf anomalies are insignificant.

4.4. Whole-Rock Sr-Nd Isotopic Compositions

The Sr–Nd isotopic compositions of samples are listed in Table S3. The Middle Jurassic syenite and alkali-feldspar granite samples exhibit measured 143Nd/144Nd ratios ranging from 0.511904 to 0.511926 and 87Sr/86Sr ratios between 0.717544 and 0.718494. Their calculated initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios are calculated to be 0.711921–0.714026, with εNd(t) values of −12.36 to −12.17 (Figure 9) and two-stage Nd model ages (TDM2) of 1.67–1.69 Ga.
The Early Cretaceous granite samples display initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios ranging from 0.711949 to 0.713118, with εNd(t) values of −12.70 to −12.61 and TDM2 ages of 1.68–1.69 Ga. Meanwhile, the enclaves within the granite yield similar initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios ranging from 0.713148 to 0.713302, with εNd(t) values of −12.84 to −12.64 and TDM2 ages of 1.68–1.70 Ga.
The Sr-Nd isotopic compositions of these samples are different from other Jurassic to Early Cretaceous granites in the Zhejiang Province (Figure 9).

4.5. Zircon Hf Isotopic Compositions

Zircon in situ Lu–Hf isotopic analyses were conducted on zircon crystals previously dated by U–Pb methods, with the results, are listed in Table S4. The zircon from the Middle Jurassic syenite samples exhibit measured 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.282117–0.282294. Their εHf(t) values vary from −13.19 to −19.66 (Figure 10), corresponding to two-stage Hf model ages of 2.05–2.45 Ga. The zircon grains from the alkali-feldspar granite also show comparable Lu–Hf isotopic compositions, with 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.282210–0.282309. Their εHf(t) values span a range from −12.80 to −16.26, with two-stage Hf model ages of 2.03–2.24 Ga.
The zircon from the Early Cretaceous granite samples display measured 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.282284–0.282375. Their εHf(t) values range from −11.18 to −14.43, with two-stage Hf model ages of 1.90–2.10 Ga.
The Hf isotopic compositions of zircon samples are different from the zircon grains of the Jurassic to Early Cretaceous granites in the Zhejiang Province (Figure 10).

5. Discussion

5.1. Petrogenesis and Sources of Middle Jurassic Syenite

In SE China, the Jurassic (178–165 Ma) syenites and syenite-granite suits are predominantly distributed in the inland Nanling Range region [9,64], contrasting with Cretaceous (particularly Late Cretaceous) syenites that dominate coastal regions [64]. This study focuses on Middle Jurassic syenite and alkali-feldspar granite samples from Zhejiang Province. The syenite samples exhibit typical syenitic compositions in the TAS diagram (Figure 6). Their geochemical signatures are distinct from most other Jurassic and Cretaceous granitoids in Zhejiang Province (Figure 8). Pronounced negative Eu and Sr anomalies, coupled with Ba depletion (Figure 8 and Figure 11b), further support the fractional crystallization of feldspar.
The genesis of syenites is generally interpreted as the partial melting of sub-continental lithospheric mantle [9,10,17,22]. Cretaceous syenites in coastal SE China typically show positive whole-rock εNd(t) and zircon εHf(t) values, indicating derivation from a fertile lithospheric mantle metasomatized by subduction-related fluids/melts [9] or magma mixing between depleted asthenospheric melts and enriched mantle melts [10]. The studied syenite samples show negative whole-rock εNd(t) and zircon εHf(t) values (Figure 9 and Figure 10). These isotopic characteristics of syenite are similar to the Late Mesozoic syenites in SE China, which are similar to EM2-type lithospheric mantle [9,64]. These features are usually explained by parental magma derived from an enriched lithospheric mantle source [10,65,66]. Their trace element patterns, including LILE enrichment and HFSE depletion, are characteristic of the subduction-modified mantle. Notably, the negative Ce anomalies in the syenites are commonly associated with the involvement of subducting marine sediments prior to mantle melting [67,68]. Thus, the studied syenites are inferred to originate from the partial melting of an enriched lithospheric mantle metasomatized by subducted sedimentary materials.

5.2. Petrogenesis and Sources of Middle Jurassic Alkali-Feldspar Granite

The geochemical signatures of the studied Middle Jurassic syenites and alkali-feldspar granites display scattered patterns in classification diagrams (Figure 6), indicating heterogeneous source compositions and evolutionary processes. The alkali-feldspar granites are characterized by higher silica and lower alkali contents compared to coeval syenites. Their geochemical compositions are different from those of Middle to Late Jurassic granitoids in Zhejiang Province (Figure 7). They also show limited variation in the Nd isotope with increasing SiO2 (Figure 11a), indicating a fractional crystallization process. Most of them plot within the fields of fractionated granitoid rocks in rock classification diagrams (Figure 12b,c). Pronounced negative Eu and Sr anomalies, coupled with systematic Ba and Sr depletions (Figure 11b), further support feldspar fractionation.
The alkali-feldspar granites plot near the boundary between S- and I-type granites in the A/CNK-A/NK diagram. However, some other geochemical features of them are similar to the I-type granitoid rocks (Figure 6b and Figure 12c). It implies that they have a transitional character. The sources of granitoids are often inferred from experimental melts of various lithologies [71]. The geochemical compositions of the alkali-feldspar granites exhibit pronounced scattering across the compositional fields defined by various source components (Figure 13a–c) and do not cluster within any specific end-member compositional field as illustrated in discrimination diagrams (Figure 8). Compared to syenites, the alkali-feldspar granites display higher zircon Hf isotopic compositions (Figure 10) and Nd isotopic signatures closer to those of the Cathaysia Block basement (Figure 9). However, the syenites and granites exhibit a distinct geochemical discontinuity, defining two compositionally discrete clusters in geochemical diagrams (Figure 6, Figure 7 and Figure 13). Meanwhile, the zircon U-Pb dating also shows the alkali-feldspar granite formation earlier than the syenites. These isotopic features, combined with magmatic evolution trends, suggest that the alkali-feldspar granites could derived from the partial melting of the basement of the Cathaysia Block.

5.3. Petrogenesis of Early Cretaceous Granite and Their Intermediate Enclave

5.3.1. Early Cretaceous Granite

The Early Cretaceous granite samples exhibit high-silica compositions (70.56–71.85 wt. %, SiO2) and weakly peraluminous features. Their geochemical compositions resemble most Late Mesozoic granitoids in Zhejiang Province, though they differ slightly from some Cretaceous granitoids (Figure 7). These granites plot within the fields of unfractionated I-, S-, and M-type granitoids (Figure 12a,b). The elemental variation ranges observed in these granites suggest that they have undergone little fractional crystallization during their magmatic evolution. The geochemical classification of Early Cretaceous granite samples further supports their affinity to I-type granitoids (Figure 6b and Figure 12c).
I-type granites are typically derived from igneous (meta-igneous) protoliths [72], distinct from intermediate crustal sources (e.g., tonalitic or granodioritic) that generate high-silica melts (SiO2 > 75 wt. %) [71]. Their formation involves partial melting of mafic crustal sources (e.g., metabasalts, amphibolites) at lower- to mid-crustal depths (Figure 13) [73]. The genesis of Late Cretaceous I-type granitoids in coastal regions of SE China often reflects crust-mantle interactions with juvenile mantle-derived magmas (e.g., underplated basalts) [25,39]. These Late Cretaceous I-type granitoids show higher whole-rock εNd(t) and zircon εHf(t) values, which are near zero, implying the crustal- and mantle-derived magma mixing [39]. However, the Early Cretaceous granite samples show negative whole-rock εNd(t) values (−12.70 to −12.61) and zircon εHf(t) values (−19.57 to −13.16) (Figure 9 and Figure 10). It suggests that they could be crustal-derived magmas formed by the melting of mafic crustal sources of basements.

5.3.2. Intermediate Enclave

The intermediate enclaves within the Early Cretaceous granites exhibit metaluminous characteristics, plotting near I-type granite fields in A/CNK-A/NK diagrams (Figure 6b and Figure 12c). They plot within the fields of I-, S-, and M-type granites but out of fields of fractionated and unfractionated rocks on rock classification diagrams (Figure 12a,b), implying their features of I-type granites. The enclaves show limited variation in the Nd isotope with increasing SiO2 (Figure 11a), indicating a fractional crystallization process. Variations in Ba and Sr contents further support fractional crystallization of amphibole (Figure 11b).
The origins of enclaves in granitoid rocks are usually explained by several models, such as magma mixing, crystallization products, and crustal xenoliths [74,75]. The enclaves formed by the mixing of mantle-derived mafic and crustal-felsic magmas are usually mafic microgranular enclaves (MMEs) and have different whole-rock εNd(t) and zircon εHf(t) values than the host rocks, implying the contribution of mantle-derived magma, which usually linked the crust-mantle interaction [26,74]. As to the crustal xenoliths, the enclaves are considered fragments of wall rocks captured during granite emplacement, which usually have obviously different geochemical features to the host rocks [76]. Enclaves result from the early-crystallized mafic minerals, and differentiation of magma is usually the concentration of minerals that are entrained within the granitic magma [75]. The characteristics of geochemistry indicated that the intermediate enclaves have the origin of fractional crystallization in the early stage of magma evolution. Their whole-rock εNd(t) and the geochemical feature are similar to the host rocks and also indicate that their formation is closely linked to partial melting of mafic crustal sources, such as meta-basaltic or amphibolites (Figure 13). Then, the intermediate enclaves formed as earlier crystallization products from genetically related granitic magmas subsequently entrained during magma ascent.

5.4. Implications for Crust-Mantle Interaction and Geodynamic Process

Jurassic-Cretaceous magmatism in SE China reflects a complex interplay between subduction dynamics, lithospheric evolution, and crust-mantle interactions [5,8,9,14,15,77]. Various tectonic models have been proposed to explain the Late Mesozoic geodynamic processes associated with the Paleo-Pacific Plate subduction beneath SE China, including changes in subduction angle [1], flat-slab subduction and foundering [18], oblique with ridge subduction [78] and repeated slab advance–retreat [16]. The Cretaceous lithospheric extension beneath SE China has been attributed to the slab rollback of the subducted Paleo-Pacific Plate [10].
The earliest Jurassic magmatism (200–180 Ma), represented by alkaline basalts and A-type granites in the Nanling Belt, likely reflects localized lithospheric delamination following the Indosinian orogeny [79,80]. Middle-Late Jurassic magmatism (170–150 Ma) along the Qin-Hang Belt records enhanced crust-mantle interaction, characterized by I-type granitoids and coeval mafic dikes [23,79]. These processes are linked to the westward subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate, which induced extension and triggered partial melting of both metasomatized lithospheric mantle and rejuvenated lower crust [10].
The SE China underwent a fundamental Mesozoic tectonic transition [5]. However, the initiation of Paleo-Pacific Plate subduction and the transition from compressional to extensional regimes during the Mesozoic era are still debated. For example, the Jincheng Early Jurassic granites in Fujian Province exhibit volcanic arc geochemical signatures, suggesting that oblique subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate commenced as early as the Early Jurassic [81]. Concurrently, Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous (153–133 Ma) volcanic rocks in the Zhejiang-Fujian regions are usually weakly peraluminous I-type rhyolitic volcanic rocks display syn-collisional volcanic arc granite affinities, indicative of formation in a transitional tectonic setting [82]. Meanwhile, the Early-Middle Jurassic peraluminous high-K calc-alkaline volcanic rocks in southern Zhejiang Province exhibit volcanic arc characteristics, indicating that they had been influenced by the Paleo-Pacific Plate subduction [83]. During the Middle Jurassic, the Paleo-Pacific Plate subduction could induce mantle wedge-derived melts incorporating oceanic sediments and subducted slab components under the compressional regime (Figure 14a). In this study, the syenite samples are suggested to be derived from the partial melting of an enriched lithospheric mantle source, which is metasomatized by subducted sedimentary materials. The alkali-feldspar granites could be derived from the partial melting of the basement of the Cathaysia Block. These processes imply that the lithosphere of NE Cathaysia Block was influenced by the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate during the Middle Jurassic.
From the Late Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous, the Paleo-Pacific Plate transitioned from low-angle advancing subduction to high-angle retreating subduction, accompanied by subducting slab rollback [8,16]. It implies a tectonic regime shift from compression to extension in SE China. By the Early Cretaceous (145–100 Ma), the magmatism migrated progressively coastward, characterized by a petrochemical transition from calc-alkaline to A-type affinities and the emergence of bimodal volcanic suites (basalt-rhyolite associations) [5,38,84,85]. The studied Early Cretaceous granites and intermediate enclaves were formed in 136–134 Ma. This is the early period of the Cretaceous tectonic transition, and the samples mainly show the melting of ancient basements of the NE Cathaysia Block. By the Early to Late Cretaceous, the slab rollback or retreating subduction continued and induced large-scale lithospheric thinning and asthenospheric upwelling with basaltic underplating beneath SE China, marked by widespread magmatic activity [25,86] (Figure 14b).

6. Conclusions

(1)
The Middle Jurassic alkali-feldspar granites (169 Ma) and syenites (167 Ma) both exhibit subduction-related geochemical signatures. The syenites in the NE Cathaysia formed from metasomatized lithospheric mantle, while coeval alkali-feldspar granites derived from partial melting of the basement of the Cathaysia Block.
(2)
The Early Cretaceous granites (134 Ma) and their intermediate enclaves (136 Ma) are high-K calc-alkaline and weakly peraluminous to metaluminous. The granites and enclaves originated from lower crustal mafic melting, with enclaves representing earlier crystallization products, which were then mechanically mixed with granite.
(3)
The crustal reworking of NE Cathaysia Block transitioned from Middle Jurassic subduction-driven compression to Early Cretaceous extension due to slab rollback.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/min15050474/s1, Table S1: Zircon in-situ U-Pb isotopic compositions of the Middle Jurassic syenite-granite and Early Cretaceous granite with its enclave in SW Zhejiang, SE China; Table S2: Whole-rock major, trace elemental compositions of the Middle Jurassic syenite-granite and Early Cretaceous granite with its enclave in SW Zhejiang, SE China; Table S3: Whole-rock Sr-Nd isotopic compositions of the Middle Jurassic syenite-granite and Early Cretaceous granite with its enclave in SW Zhejiang, SE China; Table S4: Zircon in-situ Hf isotopic compositions of the Middle Jurassic syenite-granite and Early Cretaceous granite with its enclave in SW Zhejiang, SE China.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.W. and H.L.; methodology, Y.W. and Y.Z.; software, Y.W. and H.L.; validation, Y.W. and C.J.; formal analysis, Y.W.; investigation, C.J.; resources, Y.Z.; data curation, Y.W.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.W. and H.L.; writing—review and editing, H.L.; visualization, Y.W. and H.L.; supervision, Y.Z. and C.J.; project administration, H.L. and C.J.; funding acquisition, H.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Science and Technology Innovation Project of Laoshan Laboratory, grant number LSKJ202204403, the Opening Foundation of Key Lab of Submarine Geosciences and Prospecting Techniques, MOE, Ocean University of China, grant number SGPT-2024OF-02.

Data Availability Statement

All data generated or analyses are included within this study and its Supplementary Materials.

Acknowledgments

We thank the reviewers and editors for their constructive comments and detailed suggestions, which greatly improved the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. (a) Tectonic unit and distribution of Late Mesozoic magmatic rocks in Southeast China. (b) distribution of Late Mesozoic magmatic rocks in Zhejiang Province.
Figure 1. (a) Tectonic unit and distribution of Late Mesozoic magmatic rocks in Southeast China. (b) distribution of Late Mesozoic magmatic rocks in Zhejiang Province.
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Figure 2. Geological map of the Qingyuan region in southwest Zhejiang Province with Late Mesozoic granitoid distributions.
Figure 2. Geological map of the Qingyuan region in southwest Zhejiang Province with Late Mesozoic granitoid distributions.
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Figure 3. Photograph and photomicrographs of representative intrusive rocks in the Qingyuan region, southwest Zhejiang Province. (a) Middle Jurassic syenite; (b) Syenite sample SC120; (c,d) Middle Jurassic alkali-feldspar granite; (e) alkali-feldspar granite sample SC116; (f) Early Cretaceous granites; (g) granite sample SC121; (h) Early Cretaceous granite with intermediate enclave; (i) intermediate enclave sample SC121-1. Hb: Hornblende. Pl: plagioclase. Afs: alkali feldspar. Qz: Quartz.
Figure 3. Photograph and photomicrographs of representative intrusive rocks in the Qingyuan region, southwest Zhejiang Province. (a) Middle Jurassic syenite; (b) Syenite sample SC120; (c,d) Middle Jurassic alkali-feldspar granite; (e) alkali-feldspar granite sample SC116; (f) Early Cretaceous granites; (g) granite sample SC121; (h) Early Cretaceous granite with intermediate enclave; (i) intermediate enclave sample SC121-1. Hb: Hornblende. Pl: plagioclase. Afs: alkali feldspar. Qz: Quartz.
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Figure 4. CL images of representative zircons from intrusive rocks in the Qingyuan region, southwest Zhejiang Province: SC120-3 (a), SC116-3 (b), SC121-5 (c), SC121-1 (d). Red solid circles indicate U–Pb dating spots and spot diameter, whereas yellow larger dashed circles indicate Hf isotopic analysis spots. Age and εHf(t) values are also shown for each spot.
Figure 4. CL images of representative zircons from intrusive rocks in the Qingyuan region, southwest Zhejiang Province: SC120-3 (a), SC116-3 (b), SC121-5 (c), SC121-1 (d). Red solid circles indicate U–Pb dating spots and spot diameter, whereas yellow larger dashed circles indicate Hf isotopic analysis spots. Age and εHf(t) values are also shown for each spot.
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Figure 5. Zircon U–Pb concordia diagrams and weighted mean 206Pb/238U ages for each sample in the Qingyuan region, southwest Zhejiang Province. SC120-3 (a,b), SC116-3 (c,d), SC121-5 (e,f), SC121-1 (g,h).
Figure 5. Zircon U–Pb concordia diagrams and weighted mean 206Pb/238U ages for each sample in the Qingyuan region, southwest Zhejiang Province. SC120-3 (a,b), SC116-3 (c,d), SC121-5 (e,f), SC121-1 (g,h).
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Figure 6. (a) K2O+Na2O vs. SiO2 diagram. All samples were normalized to 100% after accounting for loss of ignition. (b) A/NK vs. A/CNK (after [54]) diagrams. Data sources: Middle Jurassic [55,56,57,58]; Late Jurassic [40,59,60]; Early Cretaceous [37,61,62].
Figure 6. (a) K2O+Na2O vs. SiO2 diagram. All samples were normalized to 100% after accounting for loss of ignition. (b) A/NK vs. A/CNK (after [54]) diagrams. Data sources: Middle Jurassic [55,56,57,58]; Late Jurassic [40,59,60]; Early Cretaceous [37,61,62].
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Figure 7. Variations of major elements with SiO2. (a) Al2O3, (b) CaO, (c) Fe2O3T, (d) MgO, (e) TiO2 and (f) P2O5. Data sources are the same as in Figure 6.
Figure 7. Variations of major elements with SiO2. (a) Al2O3, (b) CaO, (c) Fe2O3T, (d) MgO, (e) TiO2 and (f) P2O5. Data sources are the same as in Figure 6.
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Figure 8. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns and primitive mantle-normalized spidergrams. Normalized values from [63]. (a,b) Middle Jurassic syenites; (c,d) Middle Jurassic alkali-feldspar granite; (e,f) Early Cretaceous granite; (g,h) intermediate enclaves.
Figure 8. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns and primitive mantle-normalized spidergrams. Normalized values from [63]. (a,b) Middle Jurassic syenites; (c,d) Middle Jurassic alkali-feldspar granite; (e,f) Early Cretaceous granite; (g,h) intermediate enclaves.
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Figure 9. Whole-rock (87Sr/86Sr)i vs. εNd(t) value diagram. Data sources are the same as in Figure 6.
Figure 9. Whole-rock (87Sr/86Sr)i vs. εNd(t) value diagram. Data sources are the same as in Figure 6.
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Figure 10. Zircon 206Pb/238U ages vs. εHf(t) value diagram. Data sources are the same as in Figure 6.
Figure 10. Zircon 206Pb/238U ages vs. εHf(t) value diagram. Data sources are the same as in Figure 6.
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Figure 11. (a) εNd(t) values vs. SiO2 contents; (b) Ba (ppm) vs. Sr (ppm) diagrams. Data sources are the same as in Figure 6.
Figure 11. (a) εNd(t) values vs. SiO2 contents; (b) Ba (ppm) vs. Sr (ppm) diagrams. Data sources are the same as in Figure 6.
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Figure 12. (a) Th vs. Rb; (b) (K2O + Na2O)/CaO vs. 10,000*Ga/Al; (c) (K2O + Na2O)/CaO vs. (Zr + Nb + Ce + Y) diagrams. Trends of I- and S- type granites [69]. Fields for I, S and M type granites (I, S and M), A-type granites (A), fractionated felsic granites (FG), unfractionated M-, I- and S-type granites (OGT) from [70]. Data sources are the same as in Figure 6.
Figure 12. (a) Th vs. Rb; (b) (K2O + Na2O)/CaO vs. 10,000*Ga/Al; (c) (K2O + Na2O)/CaO vs. (Zr + Nb + Ce + Y) diagrams. Trends of I- and S- type granites [69]. Fields for I, S and M type granites (I, S and M), A-type granites (A), fractionated felsic granites (FG), unfractionated M-, I- and S-type granites (OGT) from [70]. Data sources are the same as in Figure 6.
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Figure 13. (a) CaO/(FeO + MgO + TiO2) vs. CaO + FeO + MgO + TiO2; (b) (Na2O + K2O)/CaO vs. Na2O + K2O + CaO; (c) (Na2O + K2O)/(FeO + MgO + TiO2) vs. Na2O + K2O + FeO + MgO + TiO2. The compositions of melts produced by experimental melting of various lithologies and different granites are from [71]. Data sources are the same as in Figure 6.
Figure 13. (a) CaO/(FeO + MgO + TiO2) vs. CaO + FeO + MgO + TiO2; (b) (Na2O + K2O)/CaO vs. Na2O + K2O + CaO; (c) (Na2O + K2O)/(FeO + MgO + TiO2) vs. Na2O + K2O + FeO + MgO + TiO2. The compositions of melts produced by experimental melting of various lithologies and different granites are from [71]. Data sources are the same as in Figure 6.
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Figure 14. (a,b) Schematic cartoon for the genesis of the intrusive rocks beneath the southwest Zhejiang Province, NE Cathaysia Block.
Figure 14. (a,b) Schematic cartoon for the genesis of the intrusive rocks beneath the southwest Zhejiang Province, NE Cathaysia Block.
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Wang, Y.; Lan, H.; Jin, C.; Zhang, Y. Petrogenesis of Middle Jurassic Syenite-Granite Suites and Early Cretaceous Granites with Associated Enclaves in Southwestern Zhejiang, SE China: Implications for Subduction-Related Tectonic Evolution Beneath Northeastern Cathaysia Block. Minerals 2025, 15, 474. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050474

AMA Style

Wang Y, Lan H, Jin C, Zhang Y. Petrogenesis of Middle Jurassic Syenite-Granite Suites and Early Cretaceous Granites with Associated Enclaves in Southwestern Zhejiang, SE China: Implications for Subduction-Related Tectonic Evolution Beneath Northeastern Cathaysia Block. Minerals. 2025; 15(5):474. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050474

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wang, Yu, Haoyuan Lan, Chong Jin, and Yuhuang Zhang. 2025. "Petrogenesis of Middle Jurassic Syenite-Granite Suites and Early Cretaceous Granites with Associated Enclaves in Southwestern Zhejiang, SE China: Implications for Subduction-Related Tectonic Evolution Beneath Northeastern Cathaysia Block" Minerals 15, no. 5: 474. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050474

APA Style

Wang, Y., Lan, H., Jin, C., & Zhang, Y. (2025). Petrogenesis of Middle Jurassic Syenite-Granite Suites and Early Cretaceous Granites with Associated Enclaves in Southwestern Zhejiang, SE China: Implications for Subduction-Related Tectonic Evolution Beneath Northeastern Cathaysia Block. Minerals, 15(5), 474. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050474

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