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Article

Utilizing Magnesium Carbonate Induced by CO2 to Modify the Performance of Plastic Clay

by
Hadi Mohamadzadeh Romiani
1,*,
Hamed Abdeh Keykha
1,2,
Saeed Chegini
1,
Afshin Asadi
3 and
Satoru Kawasaki
4
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Buein Zahra Technical University, Buein Zahra 3451866391, Qazvin, Iran
2
Division of Civil and Building Services Engineering, School of the Built Environment and Architecture, London South Bank University, 103 Borough Road, London SE1 0AA, UK
3
EnvoGéotechnique Ltd., Auckland 0614, New Zealand
4
Division of Sustainable Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Kita 13, Nishi 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-8628, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2024, 14(9), 876; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090876
Submission received: 10 July 2024 / Revised: 21 August 2024 / Accepted: 26 August 2024 / Published: 28 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clay Minerals and CO2 Capture, Utilization and Storage)
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Abstract

:
Highly plastic clays pose significant challenges in engineering projects. Various techniques have been employed to enhance their properties, though many face difficulties related to implementation and environmental impact. This study examines the effect of CO2-induced magnesium carbonate on improving the geotechnical behavior of plastic clay. CO2-induced magnesium carbonate was produced via mineral carbonation and used to improve the behavior of highly plastic natural clay. CO2 gas was injected into a sodium hydroxide solution to produce carbonate ions (CO32−). Magnesium carbonate was precipitated on a laboratory scale by adding magnesium sulfate solution to the carbonate ion solution. Clayey soil samples were obtained from test pits in the Meyghan Plain near Arak, Iran. The clay samples were treated with different percentages of the produced magnesium carbonate. Various parameters of the treated and untreated samples, including index properties, unconfined compressive strength, consolidation behavior, and swelling potential, were studied. It was found that the liquid limit and plasticity index of the treated clay decreased as the magnesium carbonate content increased. The soil classification changed from high plastic clay (CH) to low plastic silt (ML) with the addition of 15% magnesium carbonate to the highly plastic clay. The unconfined compressive strength of the treated clay increased. Additionally, the consolidation behavior and swelling index of the treated clay improved as the magnesium carbonate content increased. This study confirms that CO2-induced magnesium carbonate is a promising material for improving the behavior of highly plastic clays, offering a sustainable approach to environmental management.

1. Introduction

The rise in greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), in the atmosphere is a pressing concern for environmental management. Anthropogenic activities have largely contributed to this increase, resulting in global warming and its consequences. Recently, there has been a substantial growth in the amount of CO2, primarily caused by human activities, leading to global warming. Recent analysis of 2023 data shows that emissions from fossil fuels rose 1.1 percent in 2023 compared to 2022 levels, bringing total fossil emissions in 2023 to 36.8 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide [1]. Mineral carbonation, a promising approach to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, is well known for its binding properties [2,3,4,5,6]. This method involves the conversion of captured CO2 into carbonates (CO32−) or bicarbonates (HCO3−). Carbonate minerals precipitate through the combination of ions such as Ca2+ and carbonate ions (CO32−). In the presence of calcium, iron, and magnesium ions, carbonate minerals such as CaCO3, FeCO3, and MgCO3 precipitate [7,8,9,10]. Mg carbonates are a class of materials that play a fundamental role in climate change mitigation actions, as they offer possibilities for carbon capture and utilization in construction materials [11]. The addition of magnesium carbonate to clay causes granular behavior in clay and thus improves the consolidation behavior of CH and CL clays [9,12].
Carbonate minerals were produced through microbial-induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) and CO2-induced carbonate precipitation (CICP) techniques and were innovatively applied for soil improvement in both granular [3,4,5] and clayey soils [13,14,15]. CO2 and microbial-induced Ca2+ and Mg2+ precipitation in sandy soils can increase the compression strength and improve the homogeneity of bio-cemented sand [16,17] and also improve the tidal erosion resistance [18]. Chemical and mechanical improvement techniques are usually used to solve problems associated with problematic soils such as expansive soils, highly plastic clays, loose sands, and collapsible soils. Chemical binders such as cement, lime, fly ash, etc., have been used to improve the behavior of difficult/problematic soils. The use of conventional soil binders (such as lime or cement) in soil improvement has become prevalent due to their compatibility, strength, and cost-effectiveness [19,20,21,22]. Chemical additives, on the other hand, are harmful to the environment. The process of cement and lime production is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions. Annually, cement production accounts for more than 7% of CO2 emissions [23]. Therefore, developing innovative, sustainable, and ecologically friendly techniques to improve high-plastic clayey soils appears to be of significant interest.
Many structures are built on expansive clayey soils. These clays can present significant challenges to engineering projects because they have the potential to expand or contract with changes in moisture content. Highly plastic clayey soils are among the most critical problems for civil infrastructure. Annual expenses associated with damage due to highly plastic-expansive soils have noticeably risen in recent decades [24,25]. Limited research has been conducted on the use of CO2-induced carbonates to improve the behavior of clay. Different types of CO2-induced carbonate minerals, such as calcite, siderite, and magnesite, have been used to treat highly plastic bentonite clay. The results of previous studies showed that CO2-induced carbonate minerals decrease the plasticity index and activity of the clay, and can improve the shear strength and consolidation behavior of the clay. Additionally, these studies confirmed that magnesium carbonate is more effective than calcite and siderite at improving clay behavior [9,12].
This study examines the potential use of CO2-induced magnesium carbonate to reduce swelling potential and enhance the plasticity and strength of highly plastic natural clays. The investigation highlights the positive impact of mineral carbonates on soil mechanical properties, presenting opportunities for developing sustainable, ecologically friendly techniques for soil improvement and environmental management. The results of this research could contribute to mitigating the negative effects of soil degradation and climate change, promoting a more sustainable approach to environmental management. For this purpose, highly plastic natural clay samples were obtained from Meyghan Plain, near Arak, Iran. On a microscale, the plasticity, strength, swelling, and mineralogical features of untreated and treated samples were compared, and the results and subsequent conclusions are presented in this paper.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. CO2-Induced Magnesium Carbonate Production

In this research, a modified method based on the process presented by Romiani et al. (2021) [9] was used to produce CO2-induced magnesium carbonate. The mineral carbonation procedure and a schematic diagram of CO2-induced magnesium carbonate production are shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively. CO2 gas was injected at a rate of 5 mL/min for 72 h into a sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution with a molar mass of approximately 40 g/mol (2 molar). When CO2 reacts with sodium hydroxide in the presence of water, Na2CO3(aq) is formed in phase 2 of the production process. The researchers made some modifications and selected magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) with a molar mass of 120.36 g/mol and a water solubility of 37.0 g/L to obtain the Mg2+ ion component. MgCO3 was then precipitated by adding a magnesium sulfate solution (1 molar) to the Na2CO3 solution at room temperature (20–25 °C), according to the equation presented in Figure 2 (phase 3). The precipitated carbonate was filtered and dried at room temperature to extract solid magnesium carbonate as a powder. The produced powder was then used to treat the highly plastic clay samples in the next step.

2.2. Soil Type

Soil samples from the Meyghan Plain, near the city of Arak in Iran, were selected to investigate the effect of magnesium carbonate on highly plastic clays. Soil sampling was conducted at a depth of 0.5 to 1 m in a test pit near the village of Taremazd, 8 km northeast of Arak. The soil samples used in this study are referred to as Arak clay. The engineering properties of the soil are listed in Table 1. The chemical properties of Arak clay, obtained from XRD analysis, are provided in Table 2. Additionally, Figure 3 shows the particle size distribution of the soil based on the hydrometer test. The soil contains 57% clay with a grain size of less than 2 μm. Regarding the index properties, the soil’s swell potential is classified as medium, which may damage the building’s foundation and flooring if saturated.

2.3. Specimen Preparation

Magnesium carbonate powder in various percentages (5%, 10%, and 15% by dry weight) was added to pre-weighed amounts of dried clay. The dry mixtures were then combined with distilled water to reach a water content of 26.5%. The soil and carbonate mixture was compacted using the under-compaction method suggested by Ladd (1978) [30] to obtain a homogeneous specimen with a dry density of 1.49 g/cm3 in a cylindrical mold with a 10 cm diameter and 10 cm height. The molded samples were sealed and cured at room temperature (20–25 °C) for 7 days. For consolidation and unconfined compression tests, consolidation rings and thin-walled tube samplers were used to obtain appropriate specimens from the treated molded samples.

2.4. Scanning Electron Microscopy and XRD Analysis

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) tests were conducted on both untreated and treated specimens with magnesium carbonate to reveal the crystalline form of the magnesium carbonate and soil particles. For both untreated and treated specimens, optimal quality images were obtained using a 2 kV accelerating voltage, a 25 A current, and a T2 secondary electron detector.
In addition to the SEM tests, Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) analysis was performed on the produced magnesium carbonate. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis was also conducted on the produced magnesium carbonate and Arak clay to determine the mineral types present in the studied materials.

2.5. Evaluation Tests

Table 3 summarizes the test schedule and specimen specifications for this study. Various geotechnical tests were conducted on both the untreated and treated clay samples with different percentages of magnesium carbonate (5%, 10%, and 15% by weight) after a 7-day curing period. Atterberg limits, including the liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL), were determined according to ASTM D4318 [28] and were repeated three times for each test condition.
Unconfined compression tests were performed on specimens obtained by inserting a thin-walled tube with a 3.75 cm inner diameter and 7.5 cm height into the compacted, 7-day cured samples. The loading rate was set at 1 mm/min, as per ASTM D2166 [31]. One-dimensional consolidation and swell tests were also conducted on specimens prepared by inserting an oedometer ring with a 50 mm inner diameter and 20 mm height into the compacted, 7-day cured samples. One-dimensional consolidation tests were carried out using the incremental loading method according to ASTM D2435 [32]. For the one-dimensional swell tests, the specimens were inundated under a pressure of 10 kPa, and the swell strain and pressure were determined following ASTM D4546 [33].

3. Results

3.1. Soil Index Properties

Figure 4 demonstrates the impact of varying magnesium carbonate percentages on the liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), and plasticity index (PI) of the treated specimens. The graph clearly shows that a higher proportion of magnesium carbonate leads to a more pronounced reduction in both the liquid limit and plasticity index. The most significant reductions in LL and PI values are observed for the specimen treated with 15% magnesium carbonate. Specifically, the addition of 15% magnesium carbonate to the clay resulted in a 15.8% decrease in the liquid limit and a 43.5% decrease in the plasticity index. These results indicate that magnesium carbonate is a potentially effective soil stabilizer that can mitigate the plasticity and moisture sensitivity of highly plastic clay.
Figure 5 displays the positions of both untreated and treated samples on the plasticity chart, an essential tool for classifying soil types based on their plasticity and liquid limit. Adding magnesium carbonate to the clay alters the soil classification from CH to ML. This change indicates that magnesium carbonate has reduced the plasticity index of the treated clay, making it less sensitive to changes in moisture content.
The results of this study are consistent with previous research employing both the CO2-induced carbonate precipitation method [9] and the microbially induced calcite precipitation (MICP) method [15,34]. These methods have also been found to improve the index properties of highly plastic clays.

3.2. SEM and XRD Analysis

Figure 6 provides SEM and XRD analyses of the produced magnesium carbonate. The SEM images in Figure 6a,b reveal that the MgCO3 crystals have grown in needle and blade shapes, with a thickness of about 1 to 2 μm. The merging of needle-shaped particles results in larger fragments with a thickness greater than 20 μm, which is consistent with previous research that produced carbonate minerals under similar conditions [35,36]. The EDS and XRD analyses of the produced magnesium carbonate are shown in Figure 6c,d. The EDS results indicate the distribution of C, O, and Mg elements in the test area, confirming the satisfactory purity of the produced mineral carbonate. The XRD analysis reveals that the carbonate mineral is nesquehonite, a magnesium carbonate hydrate with the chemical formula MgCO3·3H2O. Previous research has also identified nesquehonite as a product of CICP techniques [35,37]. This information is important as it confirms the identity and quality of the magnesium carbonate used in the study, which is necessary for understanding its effects on the clay’s properties.
Figure 7 presents the SEM and XRD analyses of the Arak clay used in the study. The SEM images in Figure 7a,b reveal the morphology and texture of the Arak clay. The wavy, foliaceous particles indicate that the clay consists of thin, flat layers stacked on top of each other. This texture is characteristic of clay minerals, which typically have a plate-like structure.
The XRD pattern identifies several clay minerals in the Arak clay, including illite, chlorite, kaolinite, and vermiculite, as well as calcite and quartz. The presence of these minerals can significantly influence the clay’s engineering properties, such as its strength, compressibility, and permeability. A thorough understanding of the clay’s mineral composition is essential for choosing effective stabilization techniques to improve its suitability for construction.
In Figure 8a, the SEM image of the treated clay with magnesium carbonate is displayed. The image shows that the needle-shaped particles of nesquehonite are dispersed evenly among the clay particles. Notably, the blade-shaped particles observed in the mineral images (Figure 6a) are not visible in the treated clay image (Figure 8a). This suggests that during sample preparation, the blade particles were broken down into smaller needle particles due to the impact of tamping. It is also possible that the blade particles dissolved in the water used during sample preparation.
On the other hand, Figure 8b shows the SEM image of uncompacted clay mixed with magnesium carbonate. In this image, large blade particles of magnesium carbonate are visible, as they were not broken down due to the absence of tamping. The results suggest that compaction plays an important role in dispersing and breaking down mineral particles in the treated clay. Overall, the SEM images in Figure 8 provide insights into the physical properties of the treated clay with magnesium carbonate and its interaction with the clay particles.
The study’s results suggest that adding magnesium carbonate to clay can enhance its behavior. This improvement is primarily due to the effective dispersion of needle- and blade-shaped magnesium carbonate particles among the clay particles, which helps reduce the clay’s plasticity index. Additionally, the adhesion between clay and magnesium carbonate particles can lead to the formation of larger aggregates, altering the particle size distribution of the clay to a coarser texture.
Both the reduction in plasticity index and the change in particle size distribution are beneficial because they contribute to improved soil stability and strength. Coarser-grained soils are generally less prone to erosion and less sensitive to moisture fluctuations. Therefore, adding magnesium carbonate to clay can potentially make it a more suitable material for construction or soil stabilization.

3.3. Unconfined Compression Test

Figure 9 presents the results of unconfined compression tests conducted on untreated and treated clay samples with varying percentages of magnesium carbonate. Figure 9a shows the axial stress–strain behavior of the samples, while Figure 9b displays the unconfined compression strength (UCS) for the different untreated and treated clay samples. The results indicate that increasing the magnesium carbonate content leads to higher UCS values. Specifically, the treated specimen with 15% magnesium carbonate exhibited an approximately 25% increase in strength compared to the untreated Arak highly plastic clay.
According to Figure 9a, the failure strain for all samples is around 4%–5%, suggesting that increasing the magnesium carbonate content does not result in excessive brittleness of the soil. As illustrated in the UCS-MgCO3 graph (Figure 9b), the rate of strength increase diminishes as the magnesium carbonate percentage rises from 10% to 15%, indicated by a decrease in the graph’s slope.
The SEM image of treated clay (Figure 8a) shows that the needle magnesium carbonate particles are well scattered between the clay particles in such a way that to initiate a failure in the soil mass, in addition to the rupture of the bond between the particles, the needle particles must also break. Therefore, the presence and distribution of needle particles between the clay particles increase the soil strength.
The increase in the strength of treated the clay samples can be attributed to the bonding effect of magnesium carbonate particles on clay particles. The presence of magnesium carbonate particles between the clay particles causes them to adhere to each other and form larger particles, which leads to a coarser-grained soil. Moreover, the presence and distribution of needle-shaped magnesium carbonate particles between the clay particles increase the soil strength by requiring additional energy to break them during the failure process. This finding indicates that the use of magnesium carbonate as a soil stabilizer for highly plastic clays has a positive effect on the unconfined compression strength results, demonstrating its potential as an effective treatment method.

3.4. One-Dimensional Consolidation Test Results

The results presented in Figure 10 suggest that magnesium carbonate can improve the compressibility of highly plastic clay. As the percentage of magnesium carbonate increases, the compressibility of the treated clay decreases. The lowest compression index (Cc) was observed in the sample treated with 15% magnesium carbonate, which had a value of 0.197, compared to the highest Cc value of 0.293 in the untreated clay. Additionally, the slope of the unloading curve of void ratio versus the logarithm of effective pressure (Cs) showed that the sample treated with 15% magnesium carbonate had the lowest Cs value of 0.028, while the untreated clay had the highest Cs value of 0.040. These findings suggest that the treated clay with magnesium carbonate is less susceptible to settlement compared to untreated clay.
These results are consistent with previous studies that investigated the use of CO2-induced carbonate minerals [9] and microbial-induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) [13,15] for treating clay specimens. Both methods have been found to improve compressibility and reduce settlement in clay. Therefore, this study provides further evidence supporting the potential use of magnesium carbonate as a soil stabilizer for highly plastic clays.
Figure 11 illustrates the variation in the consolidation coefficient (Cv) for untreated and treated clay samples from one-dimensional consolidation tests. The Cv parameter was determined by averaging the calculated values for different vertical stresses. The results showed that the consolidation coefficient of the treated clay increases with higher carbonate content. The consolidation tests confirmed that both the rate of consolidation and the compressibility behavior of the clay improved with treatment by CO2-induced magnesium carbonate.

3.5. One-Dimensional Swell Test Results

Figure 12 illustrates the impact of CO2-induced magnesium carbonate on the swell strain and swell pressure of the untreated and treated clay samples. The untreated clay exhibited higher swell strain and swell pressure compared to the treated samples. The results indicate that the one-dimensional swell strain decreased by 37%, 43%, and 58% for clay treated with 5%, 10%, and 15% magnesium carbonate, respectively. Similarly, swell pressure decreased by 39%, 58%, and 61%, respectively. These significant reductions in swelling behavior strongly suggest that CO2-induced magnesium carbonate could be a sustainable solution for mitigating swelling in clay.
These findings align with the results from the plasticity index test (Figure 4) and the SEM images (Figure 6). The presence of needle-shaped magnesium carbonate particles interspersed among the laminated clay layers significantly contributed to reducing the soil’s plasticity index. The observed low plasticity index, combined with the reduced activity of the clay’s swelling minerals due to the carbonate minerals and the high water absorption capacity of the magnesium carbonate particles, likely explains the decreased swelling behavior in the treated samples.

3.6. New Insights and Future Direction

As governments are currently attempting to decrease carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, the production of mineral carbonates using CO2 generated by industrial processes would be a safe and suitable method of recycling emitted CO2 to combat climate change. One of the main goals is urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts, which limit warming to 1.5° Celsius above pre-industrial levels. Then, they must decline by 43 percent by 2030 and to net zero by 2050 [38]. Consequently, captured CO2 from industry would be ideally suited for the production of the synthesized mineral carbonates as environmentally friendly additives, achieving the net zero carbon by 2050 targets.
This study aimed to utilize industrial carbon dioxide emissions to produce carbonate minerals that can be used for soil improvement. The focus on a cleaner production process for stabilizing agents is crucial for promoting environmentally sustainable practices. The research investigates the use of CO2-induced magnesium carbonate to enhance the strength of highly plastic natural clay. The findings highlight the positive environmental impact of using carbon dioxide in the production process, with the application of these carbonate minerals in improving clay soil showing promising results.
In the future, most of the concentration should focus on the application of different CO2-induced carbonate minerals as a standard material component for soil improvement. Moreover, companies should try to commercialize mineral carbonation processes based on polluting industries.
By utilizing CO2 in these ways, engineers can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the impacts of climate change. Additionally, these technologies can also help to create new economic opportunities and support sustainable development by reducing reliance on fossil fuels and promoting the development of new low-carbon technologies. Therefore, the utilization of CO2 in engineering applications can be considered as an important aspect of environmental management.

4. Conclusions

This study aimed to investigate the potential of CO2-induced magnesium carbonate for enhancing the behavior of highly plastic clay. Samples were obtained from Meyghan Plain near Arak, Iran, and treated with 5%, 10%, and 15% CO2-induced magnesium carbonate. Atterberg limits, SEM, XRD, consolidation, and swelling index tests were conducted on the prepared samples. The key findings are as follows:
  • Atterberg Tests: The liquid limit of the clay decreased by 16% after treatment with 15% magnesium carbonate, and the plasticity index decreased by 43%. Adding magnesium carbonate altered the soil classification from CH to ML, indicating that the magnesium carbonate reduced the plasticity index of the treated clay, making it less sensitive to moisture content changes.
  • EM Analysis: The SEM images of the treated soil showed a uniform distribution of needle-shaped magnesium carbonate crystals. This distribution resulted in interlocking between particles and increased granular behavior in the treated clay.
  • Unconfined Compression Strength: The unconfined compression strength of the clay increased by 25% when treated with 15% CO2-induced magnesium carbonate, attributed to the reinforcement provided by the needle-like particles within the clay matrix.
  • Compression Index and Cs Values: Significant reductions were observed, with up to 33% in the compression index and 30% in Cs values, with increasing magnesium carbonate content up to 15%. These findings suggest that the treated clay has a lower susceptibility to settlement compared to untreated clay. Consolidation tests confirmed that both the consolidation rate and compressibility behavior of the highly plastic clay improved with CO2-induced magnesium carbonate treatment.
  • Swelling Strain: The swelling strain of the highly plastic clay decreased from 1.25% to 0.4% after treatment with 15% magnesium carbonate, demonstrating the significant potential for mitigating swelling soil problems.
These findings highlight the significance of sustainable and innovative methods for addressing challenges related to clay. In conclusion, CO2-induced magnesium carbonate appears to be a promising solution for enhancing the behavior of highly plastic clay.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, methodology, validation, investigation, data curation, and writing—original draft preparation, visualization, supervision, and project administration, H.M.R.; conceptualization, validation, formal analysis, data curation, and writing—review and visualization, H.A.K.; formal analysis, investigation, and visualization, S.C.; Conceptualization, methodology, review, and editing, A.A.; validation, investigation, and resources, S.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Afshin Asadi was employed by the company EnvoGéotechnique Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Minerals 14 00876 g001
Figure 1. The procedure of mineral carbonation, used to produce CO2-induced magnesium carbonate.
Figure 1. The procedure of mineral carbonation, used to produce CO2-induced magnesium carbonate.
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Minerals 14 00876 g002
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of CO2-induced magnesium carbonate production.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of CO2-induced magnesium carbonate production.
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Minerals 14 00876 g003
Figure 3. The particle size distribution of Arak clay.
Figure 3. The particle size distribution of Arak clay.
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Figure 4. Atterberg limits of clay and treated clay.
Figure 4. Atterberg limits of clay and treated clay.
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Minerals 14 00876 g005
Figure 5. Positions of treated and untreated samples in the plasticity chart.
Figure 5. Positions of treated and untreated samples in the plasticity chart.
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Figure 6. SEM, EDS, and XRD analysis of the produced mineral: (a,b) SEM images; (c) EDS analysis; (d) XRD analysis.
Figure 6. SEM, EDS, and XRD analysis of the produced mineral: (a,b) SEM images; (c) EDS analysis; (d) XRD analysis.
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Minerals 14 00876 g007
Figure 7. SEM and XRD analysis of Arak clay: (a,b) SEM images and (c) XRD analysis.
Figure 7. SEM and XRD analysis of Arak clay: (a,b) SEM images and (c) XRD analysis.
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Minerals 14 00876 g008
Figure 8. SEM images of (a) compacted and (b) uncompacted treated clay with 15% magnesium carbonate.
Figure 8. SEM images of (a) compacted and (b) uncompacted treated clay with 15% magnesium carbonate.
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Minerals 14 00876 g009
Figure 9. Unconfined compression test results: (a) stress–strain curves and (b) variation in UCS versus carbonate mineral percent.
Figure 9. Unconfined compression test results: (a) stress–strain curves and (b) variation in UCS versus carbonate mineral percent.
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Minerals 14 00876 g010
Figure 10. Influence of carbon dioxide-induced magnesium carbonate on the void-ratio–overburden stress relationship of clay.
Figure 10. Influence of carbon dioxide-induced magnesium carbonate on the void-ratio–overburden stress relationship of clay.
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Figure 11. Variation in the consolidation coefficient (Cv) with magnesium carbonate percent.
Figure 11. Variation in the consolidation coefficient (Cv) with magnesium carbonate percent.
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Minerals 14 00876 g012
Figure 12. Variation in the swelling characteristics of untreated and treated soils.
Figure 12. Variation in the swelling characteristics of untreated and treated soils.
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Table 1. Engineering properties of the clay.
Table 1. Engineering properties of the clay.
PropertiesValuesMethod
Specific gravity2.7ASTM D-854 [26]
Maximum dry density (g/cm3)1.49ASTM D-698 [27]
Optimum moisture content (%)26.5ASTM D-698 [27]
Liquid limit (%)57ASTM D-4318 [28]
Plastic limit (%)26ASTM D-4318 [28]
Plasticity index (%)31ASTM D-4318 [28]
Unified soil classificationCHASTM D-2487 [29]
Silt percent (%)
(0.075 to 0.002 mm)		43
Clay percent (%)
(Less than 0.002 mm)		57
Table 2. Chemical compounds of the studied clay based on XRD.
Table 2. Chemical compounds of the studied clay based on XRD.
MineralPercent by Weight
(%)
Calcium Carbonate (Calcite)28.89
Silicon Oxide (Quartz)22.64
Illite19.62
Kaolinite5.24
Vermiculite1.65
Chlorite13.40
Table 3. Testing program and the specifications of the specimens.
Table 3. Testing program and the specifications of the specimens.
TestStandardNumber of Tests
(No.)		Parallel Test
(No.)		Carbonate Mineral
(%)		Specimen Size
(mm)
Atterberg limitsASTM D4318 [28]430, 5, 10, 15-
Unconfined compression testASTM D2166 [31]430, 5, 10, 15Diameter = 37.5
Height = 75
One-dimensional
consolidation
(Oedometer)		ASTM D2435 [32]4-0, 5, 10, 15Diameter = 50
Thickness = 20
One-dimensional
swelling test		ASTM D4546 [33]4-0, 5, 10, 15Diameter = 50
Thickness = 20
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Mohamadzadeh Romiani, H.; Keykha, H.A.; Chegini, S.; Asadi, A.; Kawasaki, S. Utilizing Magnesium Carbonate Induced by CO2 to Modify the Performance of Plastic Clay. Minerals 2024, 14, 876. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090876

AMA Style

Mohamadzadeh Romiani H, Keykha HA, Chegini S, Asadi A, Kawasaki S. Utilizing Magnesium Carbonate Induced by CO2 to Modify the Performance of Plastic Clay. Minerals. 2024; 14(9):876. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090876

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mohamadzadeh Romiani, Hadi, Hamed Abdeh Keykha, Saeed Chegini, Afshin Asadi, and Satoru Kawasaki. 2024. "Utilizing Magnesium Carbonate Induced by CO2 to Modify the Performance of Plastic Clay" Minerals 14, no. 9: 876. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090876

APA Style

Mohamadzadeh Romiani, H., Keykha, H. A., Chegini, S., Asadi, A., & Kawasaki, S. (2024). Utilizing Magnesium Carbonate Induced by CO2 to Modify the Performance of Plastic Clay. Minerals, 14(9), 876. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090876

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