Prospectivity Mapping of Heavy Mineral Ore Deposits Based upon Machine-Learning Algorithms: Columbite-Tantalite Deposits in West- Central Côte d’Ivoire
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Geology and Mineralization
2.1. Study Area and Geology
2.2. Mineralization System Analysis and Data Used
2.3. Data Used
3. Methodology
3.1. Classification with SVM, KNN and RF Algorithms Machine-Learning
3.2. Selection and Extraction of Predictor Maps
3.2.1. Extraction of Structural Evidence Map
3.2.2. Extraction of Hydrological Evidence Criteria
3.2.3. Extraction of Geomorphologic Evidence Criteria
3.3. Selection and Extraction of Mineral Targets
3.4. Datasets and Processing
3.5. Evaluation of Predictive Models and Validation of Results
3.6. Prospectivity Mapping Process
4. Machine-Learning Algorithms Selection
5. Training of SVM and Other Models
6. Results
6.1. Discrimination of Mineral Targets
6.2. Machine-Learning Training Phases Analysis
6.3. Evaluation of Robustness of Output Models
6.4. Evaluation of Sensitivity of the Prospectivity Maps Generated
7. Discussion
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Nature | Format | Source | Spatial Resolution | Spectral Resolution | Study Parameters | Usages |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mineralogy | Vector (points) | Fieldwork | 25 m × 50 m | Concentrated Nb-Ta content in gravels. | Identification of mineral targets. | |
Hydrology | Matrix | ASTER (ASTGTM2_N06 W007_dem) of 17 October 2011. | 30 m | Surface accumulation of runoff, flow amplitude (or magnitude and direction). | Identification of areas suitable for sediment transport and deposition. | |
Morphology | Matrix | ASTER (ASTGTM2_N06 W007_dem) of 17 October 2011. | 30 m | Degree of slope inclination, profile and curvature of slope and, relief. | Identification of natural trap areas (favorable for erosion and deposition). | |
Structural | Matrix | Sentinel 2B MSI, level 1C, Date 24 December 2017 | 10, 20, 60 m | 13 bands between 443 and 2190 nm | Discontinuity In pixels | Extraction of lineaments |
Sentinel 1A SAR (VV & HH), Date 6 January 2018 | 40 m | Band C | ||||
ESRI world imagery (Maxar, Geoeye, Earthstar Geographics, CNES/Airbus DS, USDA, USGS, AeroGRID, IGN and, the GIS USER community) | 15 m | Actual appearance of objects | Validation of faults and fractures. | |||
SPOT-5 | 2.5–10 m | 5 bands between 0.5 and 0.89 µm | Actual appearance of objects | |||
Geology | Vector | Geological map (Government of Côte d’Ivoire) | 1:200,000 | Lithological surfaces, Pegmatite emplacements, Faults, Fractures | Understanding the geological context |
N° | Evidence Layer Selected as Entry Criteria | Predictive Parameters Selected to Build the Machine-Learning Prediction Model |
---|---|---|
1 | Evidence map of fracture density (Figure 5a). | Value of the fracture density extracted at the sample locations into deposits (clusters HH/HL, LL and LH) and non-deposit (cluster AL) targets. |
2 | Evidence map of flow accumulation area (Figure 5b). | Value of the flow accumulation surface extracted at the sample locations into deposits (clusters HH/HL, LL and LH) and non-deposit (cluster AL) targets. |
3 | Evidence map of flow accumulation or magnitude areas (Figure 5c). | Value of the flow magnitude extracted at the sample locations into deposits (clusters HH/HL, LL and LH) and non-deposit (cluster AL) targets. |
4 | Evidence map of slope curvature (Figure 6a). | Value of the slope curvature extracted at the sample locations into deposits (clusters HH/HL, LL and LH) and non-deposit (cluster AL) targets. |
5 | Evidence map of slope degree (Figure 6b). | Value of the slope inclination extracted at the sample locations into deposits (clusters HH/HL, LL and LH) and non-deposit (cluster AL) targets. |
6 | Evidence map of relief (Figure 6c). | Value of the elevation extracted at the sample locations into deposits (clusters HH/HL, LL and LH) and non-deposit (cluster AL) targets. |
Learning Hyperparameters to Train SVM Machine-Learning Algorithms | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Two multi-class classification strategies tested: One-vs.-All (OvA) and One-vs.-One (OvO) | |||||
Value of the box constraint level parameter used: 1 | |||||
Model Category | Type of Output Model | Detection Function Parameter | Value of Detection Parameter | Kernel Scale Parameter | Value of Kernel Scale Parameter |
SVM | Linear SVM | Linear | 1 | - | - |
Quadratic Core SVM | Quadratic | 1 | - | - | |
Cubic Core SVM | Cubic | 1 | - | - | |
Fine Gaussian Kernel SVM | Gaussian | 0 | Fine | 61 | |
Medium Gaussian Kernel SVM | Gaussian | 2 | Medium | 4 | |
Coarse Gaussian Core SVM | Gaussian | 9 | Coarse | 8 | |
Learning Parameters Used to Train KNN Machine-Learning Algorithms | |||||
Separation Parameter | Number of Neighbors | Metric Distance Parameter | Weighting Parameter | ||
KNN | Fine KNN | Fine | 1 | - | - |
Median KNN | Medium | 10 | - | - | |
Coarse KNN | Coarse | 100 | Coarse | - | |
Cosine KNN | Medium | 10 | Cosine | - | |
Cubic KNN | Medium | 10 | Cubic (Minkowski) | - | |
Equal-weighted KNN | 1 | Weighted | Equal | ||
Euclidean-weighted KNN | 10 | Weighted | Euclidean | ||
Inverse distance weighted KNN | 100 | Weighted | Inverse distance | ||
Inverse squared distance weighted KNN | - | 100 | Weighted | Inverse square distance | |
Learning Hyperparameters Used to Train RF Machine-Learning Algorithms | |||||
Assembly method used: Bagging trees; range of maximum number of splits tested: 10, 20 and 30; range of numbers of learners tested: 30–60–100 and 500; learning rate values used: 0.1 and 1; sub-space dimension value used: 1 | |||||
Random Forest | RF-10 splits and 30 learners | RF-20 splits and 60 learners | |||
RF-10 splits and 60 learners | RF-20 splits and 100 learners | ||||
RF-10 splits and 500 learners | RF-20 splits and 500 learners | ||||
RF-30 splits and 500 learners | RF-30 splits and 500 learners | ||||
RF-30 splits and 100 learners | RF-30 splits and 60 learners | ||||
RF-10 splits and 100 learners | RF-30 splits and 30 learners | ||||
RF-20 splits and 30 learners | - |
CO Type | Number of Points | Nb-Ta Grade Range (g/m3) | Spatial Cluster/Outlier Nb-Ta Grade (g/m3) | Min/Max Moran’s I Index | Min/Max p-Value | Min/Max Number of Neighbors |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HH | 767 | 45 to 1157 | 136.61 | 0.0005/14.35 | 0.002/0.038 | 7/554 |
HL | 98 | 45 to 821 | 74.08 | −1.65/0 | 0.002/0.034 | 33/442 |
LH | 513 | 0 to44 | 23.5 | −059/0 | 0.002/0.038 | 9/546 |
LL | 1542 | 0 to 44 | 5.63 | 0/0.43 | 0.002/0.038 | 13/459 |
AL | 789 | 0 to 1126 | 40.98 | −0.08/2.34 | 0.04/0.498 | 1/545 |
Total | 3709 | - | - | - | - | - |
Name of Model | Multi-Class Classification Strategy Used | Value of Detection Parameter | Value of Kernel Scale Parameter | CVA (%) | AUC Value (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Class1 (AL) | Class 2 (LL) | Class 3 (LH) | Class 4 (HH/HL) | |||||
Linear kernel SVM | One vs. One | 1 | - | 41.6 | 63 | 58 | 51 | 55 |
One vs. All | 1 | - | 39.8 | 58 | 63 | 58 | 54 | |
Quadratic kernel SVM | One vs. One | 1 | - | 45.2 | 67 | 66 | 62 | 66 |
One vs. All | 1 | - | 42 | 55 | 67 | 63 | 60 | |
Cubic kernel SVM | One vs. One | 1 | - | 52 | 71 | 74 | 70 | 71 |
One vs. All | 1 | - | 41.8 | 65 | 64 | 63 | 66 | |
Fine Gaussian kernel SVM | One vs. One | 0 | 61 | 61.9 | 79 | 85 | 75 | 78 |
One vs. All | 0 | 61 | 62.4 | 79 | 85 | 75 | 78 | |
Medium Gaussian kernel SVM | One vs. One | 2 | 4 | 50.5 | 70 | 73 | 65 | 69 |
One vs. All | 2 | 4 | 49.9 | 63 | 74 | 68 | 68 | |
Coarse Gaussian kernel SVM | One vs. One | 9 | 8 | 41.7 | 65 | 65 | 59 | 58 |
One vs. All | 9 | 8 | 42.7 | 59 | 65 | 59 | 56 |
Name of Model | Metric Distance Type | Distance Weighting Type | Number of Neighbors | CVA (%) | AUC Value (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Class 1 (AL) | Class 2 (LL) | Class 3 (LH) | Class 4 (HH/HL) | |||||
Fine KNN | Euclidean | Equal | 1 | 63.7 | 73 | 81 | 67 | 73 |
Cubic | Equal | 1 | 63.1 | 73 | 80 | 66 | 73 | |
Cosine | Equal | 1 | 62.9 | 73 | 80 | 67 | 72 | |
Medium KNN | Euclidean | Equal | 10 | 50.5 | 71 | 76 | 69 | 72 |
Cubic | Equal | 10 | 49.7 | 71 | 75 | 69 | 72 | |
Cosine | Equal | 10 | 49.1 | 70 | 75 | 69 | 73 | |
Coarse KNN | Euclidean | Equal | 100 | 45.9 | 66 | 67 | 64 | 64 |
Cubic | Equal | 100 | 45.8 | 65 | 66 | 64 | 64 | |
Cosine | Equal | 100 | 45.9 | 65 | 67 | 63 | 64 | |
Cosine KNN | Euclidean | Equal | 10 | 50.5 | 71 | 76 | 69 | 72 |
Cosine | Equal | 10 | 49.1 | 70 | 75 | 69 | 73 | |
Cubic KNN | Euclidean | Equal | 10 | 50.5 | 71 | 76 | 69 | 72 |
Cubic | Equal | 10 | 49.7 | 71 | 75 | 69 | 72 | |
Weighted- Euclidean KNN | Euclidean | Equal | 10 | 50.5 | 71 | 76 | 69 | 72 |
IDW-weighted KNN | Euclidean | Inverse distance | 10 | 65.3 | 82 | 89 | 75 | 78 |
IDW2-weighted KNN | Euclidean | Inverse distance- squared | 10 | 65.3 | 82 | 89 | 75 | 78 |
Name of Model | Maximum Division | Number of Learners | Learning Rate | CVA (%) | AUC Value (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Class1 (AL) | Class 2 (LL) | Class 3 (LH) | Class 4 (HH/HL) | |||||
RF (10sp/30L) | 10 | 30 | 0.1 | 67.3 | 87 | 91 | 80 | 81 |
RF (10sp/60L) | 10 | 60 | 0.1 | 68.2 | 87 | 91 | 81 | 80 |
RF (10sp/100L) | 10 | 100 | 0.1 | 68.3 | 87 | 91 | 81 | 81 |
RF (10sp/500L) | 10 | 500 | 0.1 | 68.4 | 88 | 91 | 82 | 81 |
RF (20sp/30L) | 20 | 30 | 0.1 | 67.2 | 86 | 90 | 80 | 80 |
RF (20sp/60L) | 20 | 60 | 0.1 | 67,5 | 87 | 91 | 80 | 81 |
RF (20sp/100L) | 20 | 100 | 0.1 | 68.3 | 87 | 91 | 81 | 81 |
RF (20sp/500L) | 20 | 500 | 0.1 | 68.4 | 88 | 91 | 81 | 81 |
RF (30sp/30L) | 30 | 30 | 0.1 | 67.3 | 86 | 90 | 80 | 80 |
RF (30sp/60L) | 30 | 60 | 0.1 | 68.1 | 87 | 91 | 81 | 81 |
RF (30sp/100L) | 30 | 100 | 0.1 | 69 | 87 | 91 | 82 | 81 |
RF (30sp/500L) | 30 | 500 | 0.1 | 68.5 | 87 | 91 | 81 | 81 |
Fine Gaussian Kernel SVM Confusion Matrix (Values are in %) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Class 1 (AL) | Class 2 (LL) | Class 3 (LH) | Class 4 (HH/HL) | |
Class 1 (AL) | 48.84 | 34.88 | 2.91 | 13.37 |
Class 2 (LL) | 6.82 | 86.04 | 1.30 | 5.84 |
Class 3 (LH) | 10.00 | 34.44 | 23.33 | 32.22 |
Class 4 (HH/HL) | 5.23 | 25.00 | 11.63 | 58.14 |
Number of samples for validation = 742; CVA = 63.34%; Kappa Coefficient = 0.46 | ||||
IDW-weighted KNN Confusion matrix (values are in %) | ||||
Class 1 (AL) | Class 2 (LL) | Class 3 (LH) | Class 4 (HH/HL) | |
Class 1 (AL) | 60.47 | 20.93 | 9.3 | 9.3 |
Class 2 (LL) | 7.14 | 83.12 | 1.62 | 8.12 |
Class 3 (LH) | 12.22 | 16.67 | 38.89 | 32.22 |
Class 4 (HH/HL) | 4.65 | 12.79 | 19.19 | 63.37 |
Number of samples for validation = 742; CVA = 67.92%; Kappa Coefficient= 0.54 | ||||
RF (30sp/100L) Confusion matrix (values are in %) | ||||
Class 1 (AL) | Class 2 (LL) | Class 3 (LH) | Class 4 (HH/HL) | |
Class 1 (AL) | 63.37 | 23.26 | 5.23 | 8.14 |
Class 2 (LL) | 6.82 | 86.04 | 1.30 | 5.84 |
Class 3 (LH) | 10.00 | 20.00 | 36.67 | 33.33 |
Class 4 (HH/HL) | 5.23 | 16.86 | 15.12 | 62.79 |
Number of samples for validation = 742; CVA = 69.41%; Kappa Coefficient = 0.56 |
Confusion Matrix of the RF Model Prospectivity MAP (Occupied Area) | ||||||
Value is km2 | Predicted value from RF model prospectivity map | Total | ||||
AL | LL | LH | HH/HL | |||
Known Deposit value | AL | 0.80 | 0.40 | 0.09 | 0.12 | 1.40 |
LL | 0.22 | 2.62 | 0.07 | 0.21 | 3.12 | |
LH | 0.13 | 0.21 | 0.34 | 0.23 | 0.91 | |
HH/HL | 0.16 | 0.48 | 0.25 | 0.91 | 1.80 | |
Total | 1.31 | 3.71 | 0.75 | 1.47 | 7.23 | |
Confusion Matrix of the KNN Model Prospectivity MAP (Occupied Area) | ||||||
Value is km2 | Predicted value from KNN model prospectivity map | Total | ||||
AL | LL | LH | HH/HL | |||
Known Deposit value | AL | 0.70 | 0.41 | 0.12 | 0.17 | 1.40 |
LL | 0.26 | 2.40 | 0.10 | 0.36 | 3.12 | |
LH | 0.15 | 0.20 | 0.30 | 0.25 | 0.90 | |
HH/HL | 0.20 | 0.45 | 0.24 | 0.92 | 1.81 | |
Total | 1.31 | 3.46 | 0.76 | 1.70 | 7.23 | |
Metrics of the RF prospectivity map (value is in percent) | ||||||
Deposit type | Accuracy | Sensitivity | Specificity | F-score | ||
AL | 61.07 | 57.06 | 91.25 | 59.00 | ||
LL | 70.62 | 83.97 | 73.49 | 76.72 | ||
LH | 45.52 | 37.36 | 93.56 | 41.04 | ||
HH/HL | 62.12 | 50.56 | 89.78 | 55.74 | ||
Metrics of the KNN prospectivity map (value is in percent) | ||||||
Deposit type | Accuracy | Sensitivity | Specificity | F-score | ||
AL | 53.44 | 50.00 | 89.54 | 51.66 | ||
LL | 69.28 | 77.02 | 74.14 | 72.95 | ||
LH | 39.68 | 33.19 | 92.79 | 36.14 | ||
HH/HL | 54.12 | 50.83 | 85.61 | 52.42 |
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Shaw, K.O.; Goïta, K.; Germain, M. Prospectivity Mapping of Heavy Mineral Ore Deposits Based upon Machine-Learning Algorithms: Columbite-Tantalite Deposits in West- Central Côte d’Ivoire. Minerals 2022, 12, 1453. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12111453
Shaw KO, Goïta K, Germain M. Prospectivity Mapping of Heavy Mineral Ore Deposits Based upon Machine-Learning Algorithms: Columbite-Tantalite Deposits in West- Central Côte d’Ivoire. Minerals. 2022; 12(11):1453. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12111453
Chicago/Turabian StyleShaw, Kassi Olivier, Kalifa Goïta, and Mickaël Germain. 2022. "Prospectivity Mapping of Heavy Mineral Ore Deposits Based upon Machine-Learning Algorithms: Columbite-Tantalite Deposits in West- Central Côte d’Ivoire" Minerals 12, no. 11: 1453. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12111453