From Galactic Bars to the Hubble Tension: Weighing Up the Astrophysical Evidence for Milgromian Gravity
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Background to MOND
2.1. Spacetime Scale Invariance
2.2. Possible Fundamental Basis
2.3. Non-Relativistic Theories
Numerical Solvers
2.4. The External Field Effect (EFE)
The Two-Body Force Law
2.5. Modified Inertia
2.6. Relativistic Theories
2.7. Theoretical Uncertainties in the Missing Gravity Problem
3. Equilibrium Galaxy Dynamics
3.1. Disc Galaxies
3.1.1. Rotation Curves
3.1.2. Vertical Dynamics
3.2. Elliptical Galaxies and Dwarf Spheroidals
3.2.1. Velocity Dispersion
3.2.2. Rotation of a Sub-Dominant Component
3.3. Observational Signatures of the EFE
3.4. Strong Gravitational Lensing
3.5. Weak Gravitational Lensing
3.6. Implications for Alternatives to ΛCDM and MOND
4. Disc Galaxy Stability and Secular Evolution
4.1. Survival of Thin Disc Galaxies
4.2. Number of Spiral Arms
- The radial velocity dispersion ,
- Disc self-gravity, and
- Shear caused by differential rotation of the disc.
4.3. Bar Strength
4.4. Bar Fraction
4.5. Bar Pattern Speed
5. Interacting Galaxies and Satellite Planes
5.1. Tidal Stability
5.2. Tidal Streams and EFE-Induced Asymmetry
5.3. Polar Ring Galaxies
5.4. Shell Galaxies
5.5. Tidal Dwarf Galaxies (TDGs)
5.6. The Local Group Satellite Planes
5.7. Satellite Planes beyond the Local Group
6. Galaxy Groups
6.1. The Local Group and the NGC 3109 Association
6.2. M81 and Hickson Compact Groups
6.3. Binary Galaxies
6.4. Virial Analysis of Galaxy Groups
7. Galaxy Clusters
7.1. Internal Dynamics
7.2. Probing Structure Formation
8. Large-Scale Structure
8.1. The KBC Void and Hubble Tension
8.2. Other Anomalies in Large-Scale Structure
8.3. Cosmic Shear and the Matter Power Spectrum
9. Cosmological Context
9.1. Time Variation of
9.2. The HDM Model
9.2.1. At High Redshift
9.2.2. At Low Redshift
9.3. Towards a Relativistic Model
10. Comparing CDM and MOND with Observations
10.1. ΛCDM
10.2. MOND
10.3. Comparing the Models
10.4. Parallels with the Heliocentric Revolution
- All currently proposed models are surely wrong at some level, but it is still worthwhile to find a model which is more nearly correct as this would form a more reliable stepping stone to a more complete theory.
- At an early stage of development, the more realistic model will not be able to explain everything it seeks to explain.
- Even if both models are fully developed, the less realistic model will provide a better explanation of some observables, similarly to how a broken clock tells the correct time twice each day.
11. Future Tests of MOND
11.1. Galaxy Cluster Collision Velocities
11.2. Dynamically Old TDGs
11.3. Wide Binaries
11.3.1. Using the Velocity Distribution
11.3.2. Using the Acceleration of Proxima Centauri
11.4. Solar System Ephemerides
11.5. Spacecraft Tests
11.5.1. Within the Solar System
11.5.2. Beyond the Solar System
12. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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