Changing Livelihoods and Landscapes in the Rural Eastern Cape, South Africa: Past Influences and Future Trajectories
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Sites
3. Approach and Methods
4. Conceptual and Analytical Lens
5. Results and Discussion
5.1. Changing Livelihoods and Landscapes
5.1.1. Shifting Livelihood Portfolios
5.1.2. Abandonment of Fields and a Decline in Livestock Production
Aerial Photography Analysis of the Gatyana Landscape over the past 50 Years (1961–2009) has Shown: | |
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Site | Does Your Household Rely More on Purchased Goods than in the Past? | Has This Made It Harder or Easier for Your Household? | |||
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% yes | % no | % Easier | % Harder | % Unsure | |
Gatyana (n = 50) | 72 | 28 | 16 | 72 | 17 |
Lesseyton (n = 50) | 69 | 29 | 23 | 60 | 12 |
Some stated reasons | Gardening wastes money Shop gives credit Can’t rely on gardening Crops don’t grow Too old to garden | Transport expensive High costs in town Shops far Pay for load in taxi No other option |
Why Are You Farming? | What Do You Think about the Future of Farming? |
---|---|
“No one forces me to farm, it is something I enjoy doing, I love it and have been farming since I was a child. I have never worked but in farming.” “I don’t buy everything, for example I grind maize here at home and don’t buy it in town. Farming saves a lot of money”. “I feel very good about being a farmer, I wish I would plant more if I had resources and if I was healthy.” “I started farming from 1941 to today, it`s something I have been doing all my life.” “I`m passionate about farming chickens and crops. Farming guarantees food, you cannot experience hunger when farming.” | “There is little interest from the younger generation in farming.” “We are still young and now we are negotiating with government to revitalize our fields, we are really pushing for them to come and support us.” “My eldest child will definitely continue with farming.” “My children and grandchildren will continue with farming because we raised them well regarding the importance of farming. They were raised to respect farming.” “There is hope of farming in the future here, people do talk about wanting to plant their fields again, and their hope is on government.” |
5.1.3. Unemployment, Declining Remittances and Less Cash
5.1.4. Social Grants: Window of Opportunity or a Barrier to Transformation?
“I worry about how I will survive if the government stops the old age grant.” |
“There are six people living in this house. Me, my two daughters, my brother and grandchildren. We live on the pension that I get.” |
“I cannot afford to build a decent dwelling for my family due to financial constraints. And to raise children on a social grant is very hard for me. It was better when my husband was alive.” |
“I am not employed; I do not have a job. I live on the grant I get. I live with my grandchildren. Nobody in this house is employed.” |
“Life is much harder now. There is no employment for the youth. They depend on my pension for survival. Everything they want they expect me to provide.” |
“If my grandmother were to pass on I would have no-one to support me, as I depend on her old age grant for surviving.” |
5.2. Broader Contexts and Changes Influencing Landscape and Livelihood Change
5.2.1. The Legacy of Apartheid and the Immovability of Path Dependence
Lesseyton | Problems | Perceived Causes | Responses |
Past | No electricity, not educated, low income | Service delivery, low education level, low income | Look for employment, sell livestock |
Present | Not enough water, unemployment, health problems, crime—murder, rape, unhealthy environment (litter, animals), substance abuse, lack of information—distance, teenage pregnancy | Lack of education, theft of taps, dumping in the bush - unclear access rights to dumping site, drugs and alcohol linked to lack of recreation, peer pressure, media, ignorance, unemployment | Rainwater tanks, sell vegetables, sew clothes and other self-employment, prostitution, community punish criminals, contraception, use school library, people clean up area |
Future | The same problems as present, but worse | Youth abusing drugs and alcohol, setting bad example for peers, leaders are corrupt and selfish | Knowledge sharing (guest speakers, evening classes, community library, adults should start this), leaders should be more educated so they take issues seriously, recreational activities, more police and police stations, more community skills-based programs, environmental regulations, elder supervision for youth, employ more nurses, street committees |
Gatyana | Problems | Perceived Causes | Responses |
Past | No education, transport, forced marriage, no rights | Children working, doing domestic duties, no money for transport, wanting money for marriages, Apartheid | Electricity Stronger and more policing No bail for arrests—harsher consequences More trained/qualified teachers Government should provide agricultural support Government should regulate child grants |
Present | Inadequate school and recreational facilities, teachers, no electricity, service delivery and roads, walk far for water, livestock theft, violence and crime, farming less, people are judgmental, lack of information, e.g., for bursaries | Corruption in school, no money, corruption in municipality, no water tanks and dams, poverty leads to theft, substance abuse, lack of education | |
Future | Violence and crime, no farming, no proper schools, teenage pregnancy increase | Government failing to deliver, lack of discipline and democracy, no consequences for crime |
5.2.2. HIV/AIDS: Long-Term, Insidious and Asset-Eroding Impacts
Type of Impact | Lesseyton (n = 170) | Gatyana (n = 170) | |
---|---|---|---|
Non affected % | 42.4 | 34.7 | |
Chronic illness and receiving free care % | 45.9 | 47.6 | |
Illness-related death in previous 10 years % | 18.2 | 22.9 | |
Presence of de facto orphans % | 24.1 | 17.6 |
Contextual Factor | Representative Sample Quotes from Life Histories |
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HIV/AIDS | “In the past, the people were healthy and fit and working. Funerals were not an everyday thing as it is the case now. Every weekend there is a funeral, it has become the norm. HIV/AIDS is rife. Some disclose their status and others do not.” “The death rate due to HIV is very high.” “Sickness is worse now. There was no HIV and no asthma.” “Health is not good at all. People could reach 80 years and above; but now we die at age 40. We are a cursed generation, we think.” |
Crime | “We got a phone call on a Saturday at about 12 midnight to say Grandma was being attacked by thugs. They stabbed her 4 times. Grandma stayed with a 14 year old girl. They ran away with the girl. We searched for the girl and when we arrived we found the girl dead; they had raped her and broke her neck. We are disappointed in the police in the way the case was handled. In fact the case was dismissed. Justice had failed us.” “Crime is rife. I cannot leave my chickens in the fowl run. When it is bed time, I fetch the chickens and they sleep with us in the house.” “It was a quiet place when I first arrived here but now things have changed. There was no crime here and no murders.” |
Social capital and networks | “People in the community are unreliable. You cannot count on them.” “It is not easy; very few people are willing to assist. If someone assists you with anything, they expect you to pay back.” “I seek help from my sisters. The community does not help. They gossip about other peoples’ problems so I do not bother asking them for help.” “I borrow money from my relatives; they do give when in a position to.” |
5.2.3. Changing Perspectives and Values
5.2.4. Urbanization and Shifts in Demographics
5.2.5. Crime and Other Maladaptive Behavior
Lesseyton (n = 168) | Gatyana (n = 170) | ||
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Gender of adults in the household | Male only | 39.1 | 32.4 |
Adult male head with adult female/s | 26.7 | 34.1 | |
Adult female head with adult male/s | 19.2 | 25.6 | |
Female only | 4.0 | 4.2 | |
P Value (Pearson Chi-Square) | 0.008 | 0.002 | |
Income category | Lowest income | 19.5 | 20.9 |
Low income | 33.3 | 17.4 | |
Moderate income | 25.0 | 28.2 | |
High income | 20.5 | 26.8 | |
P Value (Pearson Chi-Square) | 0.458 | 0.604 |
5.2.6. Erosion of Social Capital
6. Conclusions: Traps, Transformations and Possible Future Trajectories
“…more detailed analysis and understanding of the social, political and economic forces that have deepened and entrenched poverty in rural areas over the past decade. We need to know how existing inequalities are being maintained and reproduced. It is not enough to assume that the removal of ‘obstacles’ and the introduction of localized incentive packages will be enough to re-orientate an entire region with a long and deep history of poverty and under-development.”
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Shackleton, S.; Luckert, M. Changing Livelihoods and Landscapes in the Rural Eastern Cape, South Africa: Past Influences and Future Trajectories. Land 2015, 4, 1060-1089. https://doi.org/10.3390/land4041060
Shackleton S, Luckert M. Changing Livelihoods and Landscapes in the Rural Eastern Cape, South Africa: Past Influences and Future Trajectories. Land. 2015; 4(4):1060-1089. https://doi.org/10.3390/land4041060
Chicago/Turabian StyleShackleton, Sheona, and Marty Luckert. 2015. "Changing Livelihoods and Landscapes in the Rural Eastern Cape, South Africa: Past Influences and Future Trajectories" Land 4, no. 4: 1060-1089. https://doi.org/10.3390/land4041060
APA StyleShackleton, S., & Luckert, M. (2015). Changing Livelihoods and Landscapes in the Rural Eastern Cape, South Africa: Past Influences and Future Trajectories. Land, 4(4), 1060-1089. https://doi.org/10.3390/land4041060