Participatory Assessment of Cultural Landscape Ecosystem Services: A Basis for Sustainable Place-Based Branding in Coastal Territories

Abstract

Cultural ecosystem services are difficult to evaluate due to their subjective nature and the lack of indicators of the benefits they provide to people. This study applied an innovative methodology to assess the cultural landscape’s ecosystem services in the coastal countryside of La Janda in Cádiz, Spain, based on heritage assets situated outside urban centers. After identifying 700 cultural landmarks scattered throughout La Janda that represent the region’s cultural values and foster feelings of identity and belonging at a local level, public domain routes totaling 243.78 km have been selected to appreciate them. These routes have been incorporated into an Android application, enabling users to access a bibliographic summary of the landmarks and generate data on social preferences when contemplating cultural heritage. Integrated into a Public Participation Geographic Information System, these data serve as an indicator for evaluating cultural ecosystem services and support efforts to conserve and enhance the cultural capital spread across the territory. These data also allow for the identification of symbolic and emotional values linked to place identity, offering valuable inputs for sustainable place-branding strategies that promote the territory beyond conventional tourism models.

1. Introduction

Cultural ecosystem services are reluctant to accept monetary valuations for many of their fundamental aspects, especially those related to the construction of the symbolic image of a territory. Creating your own brand guarantees immediate perception and appreciation of your inherent values, which may be disparate and intangible but constitute a whole with a unique identity.

Recognizable cultural values protect other lesser values that, together, constitute the fabric that sustains social and ecological balance. E.g., in Spain, Granada is known as the city of the Alhambra, a palace complex erected by the Muslim Nasrid dynasty that is nowadays a symbol of the cultural splendor of the city during the Middle Ages.

Granada relies on such a symbol to sustain its identity, whose tourist appeal contributes to its economy. Also, Spanish tourism promotion took advantage of its mild climate to make the sun a symbol, conveying a huge offer through a successful slogan: Spain, everything under the sun.

The sunniest country in continental Europe comes together with Africa in the Strait of Gibraltar, the symbol of which is the Pillars of Hercules. Ancient Mediterranean sailors used to refer to that myth to locate the end of the known world, where the Mediterranean Sea meets the Atlantic Ocean. This powerful symbol used to be joined to the Latin sentence “Non plus ultra” (no further beyond). In the national coat of arms of Spain, this sentence was reduced to “Plus Ultra” to encourage Atlantic crossing to America.

“Non plus ultra” is currently understood as the highest point that something can reach—simply, perfection itself. This is a beautiful slogan for a beautiful land. In the La Janda region, it is easy to enjoy both the natural environment and socio-cultural aspects through the provided ecosystem services.

In consideration of the distribution of the territory’s natural and cultural resources, the very comfortable climate—except for occasional windy days—and the absence of steep slopes or other obstacles to outdoor sports activities, pedestrians, and cycle-trail itineraries are ideal for facilitating the recognition of the territory by residents and visitors during almost the entire year.

Designing some itineraries to access the region’s history and culture, via telematic means, would ease population and visitor engagement with the locally significant heritage assets. The individual perception of the landscape carried out from the public maritime–terrestrial domains and livestock trails can be complemented by the provision of information on demand by means of a mobile phone application.

Should users of such an application be granted access to information of interest pertaining to cultural heritage as they traverse the territory, this interest can be quantified by recording the number of interactions generated regarding each element to obtain detailed data on users of such an application, as well as quantitative data on the ecosystem services of historical–cultural heritage.

The employment of this automated public participation technique enables the location and weighting of the provision of ecosystem services of heritage assets, both individually for each element and grouped into routes that frame the sequence of perception.

These aforementioned purposes should be framed in three general objectives:

• To enhance the accessibility of data so that it can be utilized to assess social values and preferences in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [1];
• The promotion of local development through the development and transfer of technologies that spread the benefits of tourism throughout the territory to reduce seasonality and pressure on the coastline, as demanded by Directive 2014/89/EU of the European Parliament, establishing a framework for maritime spatial planning [2];
• To preserve ecosystem services in the coastline, increasing synergies between tourism and various sectors of the Blue Economy [3], particularly those related to sustainable food systems and those not conventionally associated with the Blue Economy based on their geographical location, as is the case of the second coastal line.

In short, the initial hypothesis to verify is whether or not it is feasible to obtain data on the cultural ecosystem services of the landscape, involving the population and residents in the social construction of the territory and its brand image as a cultural landscape.

This purpose may be achieved using telematic means to provide information with which to reinforce individual feelings of identity and belonging, while collecting data on user preferences on cultural values, with prior informed consent.

Thus, this study asks whether participatory GISs and mobile applications can provide replicable indicators of cultural ecosystem services in coastal rural landscapes. In doing so, it contributes by bridging CES assessment and cultural heritage management, offering both methodological innovation and practical implications for place-based branding.

2. Literature Review and Study Background

2.1. Ecosystem Services of Historical and Cultural Heritage

Ecosystem services are the benefits that an ecosystem provides to society, improving people’s health, economy, and quality of life [4,5]. Valuing biodiversity and ecosystem services involves ecological [6] and socio-cultural aspects [7]; the latter includes monetary valuation [8,9,10,11] and biodiversity cost of policy inaction [12].

Ecological value is intrinsic and independent of social preferences. In economic terms, it is expressed as the supply of ecosystem services [7]. In contrast, demand for these services implies their socio-cultural and monetary valuation [13,14]. However, monetary valuation alone does not capture the functionality of ecosystems or the relevance that different cultural frameworks attach to biodiversity and these services [15,16].

Daily et al. [17] proposed moving towards strategic plans for the provision of ecosystem services based on the social and political context, as this is a determining factor in participatory ecosystem service assessment. To integrate social and ecological information in the analysis of ecosystem services, we must consider that monetary valuation may induce contradictions due to differences in quantitative and qualitative perception among social actors.

Therefore, it is necessary to carry out qualitative and quantitative reviews to establish which services are susceptible to monetary valuation and which require alternative methods. From a territorial marketing perspective, this distinction is also essential for developing non-monetary valuation frameworks that highlight the cultural and symbolic capital of a heritage landscape. These frameworks can contribute to reinforcing the attractiveness and competitiveness of territories rooted in identity and authenticity.

The publication entitled “Mapping of Ecosystem Services and Associated Indicators in Andalusia” [18] applies economic valuation methods to the ecosystem services of this Spanish region, compiling cutting-edge contributions from various fields, including cultural ecosystem services. This work constitutes a state-of-the-art reference framework for historical and cultural heritage, highlighting that of the eleven cultural ecosystem services included in the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICESs) [19], only two have been valued in Andalusia. These are

• Elements of living systems that enable activities promoting health, recuperation, or enjoyment through active or immersive interactions (CICES 3.1.1.1);
• Elements of living systems that enable education and training, including the importance of between and within species genetic diversity (CICES 3.2.1.2).

Consequently, this publication by the Junta de Andalucía demands, specifically, an increase in the availability of data to measure the values and preferences of the beneficiaries of cultural ecosystem services that are not currently valued due to a lack of data. Leaving aside those aspects strictly related to the biophysical nature of the environment, those related to cultural heritage are as follows:

• Elements of living systems that enable activities promoting health, recuperation, or enjoyment through passive or observational interactions (CICES 3.1.1.2);
• Elements of living systems that are resonant in terms of culture or heritage (CICES 3.2.1.3);
• Elements of living systems that enable esthetic experiences (CICES 3.2.1.4);
• Elements of living systems that have symbolic meaning, capture the distinctiveness of settings, or their sense of place (CICES 3.4.1.1);
• Elements of living systems that have spiritual or religious meaning (CICES 3.4.1.2).

This lack of data may be attenuated by obtaining geolocated data on cultural landmark distribution through social media and big data. This way, researchers can approach public perceptions and attitudes and understand the spatial distribution of cultural landmarks in the context of ecological landscapes. E.g., Veidemane et al. collected data with participatory methods to cluster landscape areas as a basis for the preservation of natural landscapes with cultural heritage or esthetic values [20].

When these clustered values are weighted, cultural ecosystem services usually rank higher than regulating and provisioning services in stakeholder preferences, provided they are not forced to choose between them [21]. Zhao et al. stated that CES keywords related to environment management are replaced in public concerns by those referring to decision-making, tourism, health, and perceptions when research progresses and it is time to discuss the application of CESs to environmental balance and social well-being [22]. E.g., dune sites deserve protection not just for their inherent natural values or the opportunities for recreation and tourism they create but also for acting as a source of mental well-being [23].

All of the cited research relies on data availability and accuracy. This is the main research gap in CES assessment, as the most of surveys and statistics do not provide accuracy below the administrative unit where they are ascribed, and social media and big data are not likely to ensure any spatial accuracy measure. But there is an opportunity to fill this gap using Public Participation Geographic Information Systems (PPGISs) to approach the cultural landmarks’ contribution in the social construction of landscapes by collecting accurate data along outdoor tourist–cultural routes.

2.2. Cultural Landscape

The transformation of natural landscapes into human-modified environments is now widely recognized as a global phenomenon. This is because most of the Earth’s surface has been altered to a greater or lesser extent by various civilizations for diverse objectives. The discipline of landscape architecture, defined as the design of landscapes for esthetic purposes, has its origins in Central Park in New York. The formation of the park was initiated in 1850 by F.L. Olmsted, who subsequently joined prominent naturalists in advocating for the preservation of Yosemite Valley, designated as a scenic landscape in 1865 by Lincoln [24].

This declaration, which predates the one on Yellowstone in 1872 as the world’s first National Park, underscores the utility of the landscape of the American West as a cornerstone of its national identity [25], in the absence of historic buildings such as the ones that underpin the common European identity and whose architectural styles have been reflected on Euro banknotes.

In the French School of Regional Geography, the analysis of the landscape became a central focus with the contributions of Max Sorre on the concept of the “genre of life” as it pertains to the regional framework, emphasizing its role as a catalyst for the formation of landscapes. However, it was in Germany that the concept of the cultural landscape was coined, referring specifically to small rural communities with limited technological development, whose farms preserve the physiognomy of a diverse array of natural spatial forms, marked by significant regional differentiations [26]. These natural and anthropogenic elements that are linked to agriculture are enshrined as a cultural system in the 1992 World Heritage Convention, defined as the fruit of the combined action of nature and man [27].

The promotion of cultural heritage landscapes on a global scale by UNESCO (1972) inspired the establishment of the first international agreement exclusively dedicated to landscapes in Europe, the Council of Europe Landscape Convention [28], in 2000. The definition of landscape, as set out in Article 1 of the agreement, is as follows: “Any part of the territory as perceived by the population, the character of which is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors”.

As stated in Article 5 (General Measures), the convention stipulates that each party must recognize landscapes in law as a fundamental element of the human environment. This recognition is seen as a manifestation of the diversity inherent in their shared cultural and natural heritage, serving as the foundation for their respective identities.

The Spanish National Cultural Landscape Plan (2015) [29] considers the cultural landscape a consequence of the interaction between humans and the natural environment over time. Its expression is a territory perceived and valued for its cultural attributes, the product of a process that supports the identity of a community. This identity dimension is increasingly recognized as a key axis in the construction of territorial brands and in the design of sustainable tourism products that seek to connect visitors with the unique socio-cultural fabric of a place.

This plan is responsible for maintaining a register of landscapes of cultural interest at the regional level. In Andalusia, landscape guides are published for the purpose of guiding proposals for inclusion in the register, inter-administrative coordination, and public participation in cultural landscape matters.

One such initiative at the local scale in Tarifa, the southernmost point in Europe, is the Guide to the Cultural Landscape of Bolonia Cove [30], a participatory governance and heritage protection initiative encompassing the environs of the ancient Roman city of Baelo Claudia, which was dedicated to the industrial exploitation of marine resources.

This guide identifies and locates this cultural landscape, breaking down an analysis of the natural environment and the historical construction of the territory through socio-economic activities and social perceptions. The landscape characterization is linked at all times with the associated heritage resources, especially the ancestral fishing industry that takes advantage of the migratory routes of tuna through the Strait of Gibraltar.

However, this cultural landscape has deeper roots, long before Romanization. E.g., Hercules erected his mythical pillars after completing his tenth labor, the theft of King Geryon’s red oxen.

Nowadays, the economic structure of the region remains predicated upon the pursuits of stockbreeding and fishing. These activities are inextricably linked to the local environment, which is characterized by the blue sea and the reddish hue of the cattle that graze beside the former lagoon of La Janda, along with plenty of the vestiges of the various civilizations that have flourished in this Mediterranean gateway.

In this context, the cultural landscape of La Janda can be understood as a space of ecological and heritage value and as a living asset for territorial promotion. Its symbolic richness, expressed through archeological vestiges, place names, and land uses, constitutes a potential narrative capital for sustainable tourism marketing strategies. These strategies can help differentiate the territory, reduce dependency on sun-and-beach tourism, and foster a more diversified and resilient local economy.

2.3. Tourist–Cultural Routes

Tourist–cultural routes have been shown to simultaneously encourage tourism and heritage protection [31]. Territories with numerous cultural attractions must address the preservation and maintenance of this cultural capital. This concept does not necessarily imply a monetary valuation, nor is it easily integrated into decision-making, as is also the case with natural capital [32].

Therefore, the challenge is to avoid overcrowding specific tourist areas in central cities using the urban network as a whole. Peripheral localities are access points to wider and more diverse cultural territories where tourist activity can spread [33]. The decentralization of tourist flows towards rural and peri-urban areas aligns with sustainable destination marketing strategies that emphasize territorial cohesion. From a marketing perspective, cultural routes are not only conservation tools but also platforms for value co-creation between residents and visitors [32]. These routes enhance the visibility of underexplored heritage, foster emotional connection with place identity, and contribute to the diversification of local tourism offerings [34].

From a holistic standpoint, heritage and the territorial matrix in which it is embedded are inextricable. The network of historic roads that constitutes the cultural fabric of the population endows it with a distinct identity [35], linking heritage assets within the landscape as framework of social memory [36]. The pathways serve as a support and resource for tourist–cultural routes and are qualified by both the heritage landmarks they connect and the territory through which they run [37].

2.4. Public Participation Geographic Information Systems (PPGISs) for Cultural Heritage Management and Cultural Ecosystem Services Assessment

The primary function of GISs in the cultural field is the preservation of heritage assets. This is achieved by conducting an inventory of the risks they face and the preventive measures to be adopted [38]. In the context of the maritime cultural landscape, for instance, the lack of information, cultural awareness, and access facilities for the population engenders its overexploitation and hinders the rectification of impacts [39].

The utilization of GISs in archeology is essential for the acquisition of data, the execution of corresponding spatial analysis, the reconstruction of paleolandscapes, and the identification of patterns. GISs are useful, both at the territorial scale to facilitate archeological prospection in search of new settlements and at intra-site and micro-spatial scales to comprehend the internal logic of a particular site [38].

Merino-del-Río et al. [40] conducted a systematic literature review of the use of GISs in the design of cultural itineraries. This study, which was carried out using Web of Science and Scopus databases, presented a total of 136 publications, 94 of which were in the disciplinary field of history and 42 in cultural landscapes. The primary function of the GIS was to document the historical characteristics of each landmark to be visited and to link them with complementary services. In the design of cultural routes and itineraries, the numerous experiences in the construction of PPGISs can be applied to combine quantitative methods, such as face-to-face surveys or internet prospecting, and qualitative methods, such as interviews. The results of these methods can then be contrasted with field data to verify them.

These techniques of social construction of the territory, grounded in public preferences and expressed though objective and transparent criteria, are consistent with the principles of Post-Normal Science: a science-policy interface that includes ethical considerations and equitable public participation in the generation of knowledge to ensure that it benefits all [41]. In this context, the use of GISs and PPGISs integrates local knowledge and preferences when building territorial narratives and brands. These tools enable stakeholders to identify emblematic sites and co-create meaningful experiences that reflect community values, thereby enhancing the authenticity and long-term sustainability of the routes. Ultimately, this approach seeks to build an interface between science and policy, capable of bridging the growing gap between expert-driven planning and citizen engagement.

Despite this utility in cultural route and itinerary design, the use of PPGISs in archeology- and cultural heritage-specific fields has been found to be extremely infrequent. E.g., a systematic literature review conducted on 149 papers related to the application of GISs in archaeology and cultural heritage archeology did not find any reference to PPGISs among them [42].

In another systematic literature review on the application of GISs in cultural heritage, the WOS and Scopus databases were considered [43]. The 29 articles found mainly belonged to the IT and computer science fields and focused on inventory and cataloging; analysis and research; heritage dissemination; development of protection and management plans; and prediction and evaluation of impacts. Again, there were no articles focusing on PPGISs among them.

Another review was conducted to collect and analyze 1026 relevant research articles published between 1994 and 2023 from the Web of Science database [44]. There were four contributions related to PPGISs, all of them with Gregory Brown as the first author: just one of them focused on ecosystem services, a contribution from Brown and Fagerholm [45].

This article is also the only one that referenced PPGISs applied to cultural heritage to be published over the past 20 years, at least according the 2025 conducted bibliometric analysis of the academic literature, sourced from the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection, where a total of 411 documents published on the application of GISs in cultural heritage conservation were analyzed [46].

Brown and Fagerholm’s contribution, published in 2025, is a systematic review in which they analyzed 29 articles, assessing PPGISs with different sources: aerial image maps (4); cartographical maps (11); a cartographical map with a DEM basemap (1); digital—internet (7); digital internet maps—Google Maps (3); nautical charts (1); and topographical maps (2). Most of these are PPGISs devoted to landscape value typology, but there is one strictly dedicated to CESs [47], which is focused on assessing, mapping, and quantifying CESs at the community level through structured interviews with 93 persons.

In the PPGIS field, Tengberg et al. [48] organized participatory workshops with stakeholders and experts, identifying how CESs could be useful for documenting cultural heritage values of landscapes, as well as for ecosystem-based assessment and management. The study concluded by confirming that the concept of CESs could be combined with cultural landscape research. In this line, they underline one major challenge concerning both the conservation of heritage and ecosystem services: the need to describe the exact spatial extent of a particular service, and who should be incorporated in this value assessment and why.

Therefore, this need to link CES assessment and cultural heritage management suggests using PPGISs as an option. It has been found useful for both purposes separately, and joining them would be an opportunity to reinforce synergies between them.

2.5. Study Background

2.5.1. Base Cartography

To work with Geographic Information Systems, it is prerequisite to possess data in vector and raster format from authorized sources. The Institute of Statistics and Cartography of Andalusia [49] is responsible for the provision of the primary geographic data for the entire regional territory, which is collated in the spatial reference data of the Andalusia set [50]. These include the municipalities, protected natural spaces, and toponymy in vector format, and the 10 m/pixel raster Digital Elevation Model (DEM).

In order to ascertain the precise location of the cultural heritage in question, we resorted to the Nomenclature of the Spanish National Geographic Institute [51] and the register of archeological sites and cultural assets of the Regional Ministry of Culture [52].

The General Directorate of Cadastre of the Spanish Ministry of Finance [53] is responsible for the dissemination of detailed cartography in vector format, encompassing the maritime–terrestrial public domain and the domain of livestock trails.

2.5.2. Natural Environment

The cartographic sources utilized provided the delineation of protected natural areas designated as Special Areas of Conservation within the Natura 2000 Network (map 1b), in conjunction with the study concerning the restoration of the Janda lagoon and the adjacent wetlands, as published by Dueñas and Recio [54]. This study delineated the maximum floodable perimeter up to a height of 10 m above sea level.

Despite the draining and cultivation of this wetland, which is one of the largest in the Iberian Peninsula and a key link in the migration of birdlife between Europe and Africa, the coastal countryside conserves abundant environmental values in its natural spaces. This is a result of the multiple protection figures declared by the regional government (Junta de Andalucía), the European Union’s Natura 2000 Network, and UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere program.

The Regional Government of Andalusia has formally designated 23 protected areas in La Janda, encompassing three Natural Parks, two Natural Monuments, one Natural Site, and 16 areas classified in detail under four distinct protection categories outlined in the Special Plan for the Protection of the Physical Environment of the province of Cádiz.

The European Union has designated seven Special Conservation Zones as part of the EU Natura 2000 Network. Of these, two fall within the designated Special Protection Areas for Birds.

UNESCO has integrated several protected natural areas in Spain and Morocco into the Intercontinental Biosphere Reserve of the Mediterranean. This intercontinental reserve is noteworthy as the first to be declared by UNESCO, and it is regarded as having a strategic character as a biogeographical bridge between Europe and Africa, as well as between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean in the waters of the Strait of Gibraltar (see

Table 1. Protected natural areas. Source: Ref. [50] and own elaboration.

	Protection Status	Hectares	Study Área (%)
Regional government protection	Natural Park, Natural Reservation, Natural Monument, and Others	42,477	29.05%
European Union protection	Special Conservation Zones	61,287	41.91%
	Special Protection Areas for Birds	40,602	27.77%
UNESCO protection	Intercontinental Biosphere Reservation of the Mediterranean	36,696	25.09%
Old lagoon of La Janda	Unprotected	8531	5.83%

for further details).

The study area, which extends over 1462 km², is 42.97%, covered by a number of partially overlapping protection categories. It should be noted that these categories do not include the Janda lagoon, which was drained in 1920 to facilitate the cultivation of rice and whose recovery has been a consistent demand from various administrations and social sectors.

2.5.3. Cultural Heritage Data

The cultural wealth of La Janda is related to its strategic position at the access point to the Mediterranean Sea, which has supported a dense settlement in progressive interaction with cultures from all over the Mediterranean since prehistoric times. This has included the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans in antiquity, and the Ottoman and north African corsairs in the Modern and Contemporary Ages. The strong local winds pay an invaluable contribution to its good preservation in the territorial matrix, because of their ability to discourage mass tourism.

In the nearby Mediterranean coastline, the massive influx of tourists has a detrimental effect on the health of the oceans and the resilience of the coast, as well as in the decontextualization of material assets that serve to sustain the local cultural heritage, due to the way in which the territory is transformed by tourist activity. The sun-and-beach model that prevails in this area is completely inconsistent with the long-standing local cultural values of traditional societies based on agriculture, livestock, and fishing.

The initial approach to the cultural assets existing in the study area must be to record the archeological sites, whether open to the public or not, as they are essential for understanding the initial phases of the anthropization of the original natural landscape, which became the territory of successive cultures whose legacy can be interpreted today in the form of traces or cultural sediment.

A preliminary survey of the information contained within the Gazetteer revealed 427 points of cultural interest within the designated study area. Of these, 213 are of an archeological nature, 39 are of an architectural nature, 55 are of an ethnological nature, 44 are related to hotel and catering activities, and 72 are associated with hydraulic works.

The formal safeguarding of archeological sites is manifested in the implementation of enclosures and the regulation of public access to those deemed most significant. It is necessary to exercise particular caution when examining sites of scientific interest not accessible to the public, as the frequent lack of enclosures to ensure their physical protection against vandalism and plundering must be taken into account.

The specific legislation on conservation of heritage assets and access regulations is applied to those included in the register of protected assets [55], but there is a need to also consider the sensitivity of other heritage assets and the cultural landscape in a wide sense [56].

For the purpose of this study, the location coordinates of approximately one hundred sensitive sites were randomly modified with respect to the location available in IAPH website [52]. The presence of these entities within the designated territory should be regarded exclusively for the purpose of public education to take into account their contribution to the formation of the landscape. The access to most of this protected cultural heritage is strictly reserved.

It is indispensable that the toponymy is also taken into consideration as a particularly pertinent category of cultural assets, encompassing various elements such as buildings, wells, places, and paths, which provides invaluable information regarding the territory.

Within the municipalities encompassed by the study area, a total of 3791 toponyms were enumerated, which were subsequently categorized into nine distinct classifications (

Table 2. Toponyms in the study area (excluding towns and administrative units). Source: own elaboration.

Category	Count
Administrative unit	74
Building	169
Hydrography	610
Land cover	1200
Land form	653
Other	37
Populated places	831
Protected site	837
Transport network	391

). It is noteworthy that the numerous duplicate elements in the toponym register and the 427 elements of cultural interest were previously examined.

With regard to the toponyms referring to the transport network, it should be noted that, with the exception of roads, bridges, dykes and similar, there are 113 roads, 28 lanes, and 187 assets in the public domain of livestock trails: 50 cattle trails, 68 washes, 20 “padrones”, seven “cordeles”, and 42 “veredas” (

Table 3. Place names number and legal width for transport network types (except roads and ports) and livestock trails.

Transport Network Type		Count	Legal Width (m.)
Path		113	Not applicable
Lane		28	Not applicable
Public domain of livestock trails	Cañadas	50	75
	Cordeles	7	37.5
	Padrones	20	30–31 1
	Veredas	42	20
	Coladas	68	7–17 1

¹ Legal width established in the administrative classification act. Source: Junta de Andalucía [57].

).

3. Description of Case Study, Methodology and Objectives

3.1. Description of Case Study

The coastal countryside of the province of Cádiz (Spain) is an ideal object of study for assessing the ecosystem services of cultural–historical heritage, as in the landscape, shaped by livestock farming and exploitation of marine resources, remain plenty of archeological sites, especially in the former territorium of the ancient Roman city of Baelo Claudia.

The geographical area under consideration comprises six municipalities, Barbate, Benalup-Casas Viejas, Conil de la Frontera, Medina Sidonia, Tarifa, and Vejer de la Frontera (see Figure 1), all of them sharing the cattle landscape called “dehesa”.

This territory is traversed by a network of former cattle paths, connecting significant natural and cultural features. The natural environment is in an exceptional state of conservation, because of the contrast with the growing conurbation extended along the coasts of southern Spain. In addition to its natural values, the region boasts a wealth of historical and cultural heritage assets, which are worthy of conservation and represent a significant interest to the general public.

Without being exhaustive, the cultural wealth of the study area presents vestiges of the last Neanderthals, whose range progressively decreased until it was confined to the area around the Rock of Gibraltar.

Similarly, this southern tip of the European continent presents unique natural wealth, with strongholds of numerous botanical species here that make up a unique habitat. Intensely populated since ancient times, there are numerous dolmens and caves with Neolithic rock art and Iberian, Roman, Visigothic, and Muslim archeological sites, among which the Roman city of Baelo Claudia stands out.

Finally, the modern and contemporary eras have shaped the current landscape with notable ethnological landmarks, including lighthouses, fortresses, and elements of ethnological interest such as windmills, watermills, and the rural habitat linked to livestock and forestry.

3.2. Methodology

The cultural landscape of La Janda analysis took six stages:

• Using ArcGIS Pro 3.4.0, the spatial information was compiled, comprising base cartography, cadastral cartography, and the specific location of cultural assets, including place names from official data sources listed in Section 2.5.
• The geolocated cultural information was filtered according to its intrinsic characteristics, and the selection of feasible routes was based on the cultural and natural interest of its surroundings. Those selected routes are connected to cover the study area as a whole.
• The information filter and the walkability of the network of routes by non-motorized means have been verified in situ through fieldwork. This was conducted to evaluate the connectivity of the public domains and to select the routes of greatest interest.
• The visual basin of the selected network of routes works as a filter to select points of cultural interest, which were documented by consulting the bibliography and drawing up an informative synthesis of their characteristics.
• With these routes and documented points, an application for mobile phones was created. This application allowed users to follow the routes on the ground and access information on each point as they approached it. The application has been distributed for the purpose of collecting data on its use and to quantify user interest in the various landmarks that have been proposed for consultation.
• This information has underpinned the spatial analysis of the cultural landscape of La Janda, which has finally resulted in synthesis cartography with which recommendations for sectoral management have been drawn up.

This explicit sequence of steps, supported by standardized GIS tools (ArcGIS Pro 3.4.0 viewshed analysis, DEM 10, official cartographic sources), ensures that the approach is replicable in other coastal rural contexts.

3.3. Objectives

To achieve the aforementioned general objectives, it is a prerequisite to reach the following specific objectives.

• Evaluation of the visual basin perceptible from the routes that cross the public maritime–terrestrial domain and the public livestock trails.
• Georeferencing documentation on historical and cultural heritage, previously structured in a data model oriented towards its telematic dissemination.
• Developing a mobile phone application that gradually deploys information as the user moves around the territory.
• Collection of data on public preferences regarding the information offered, integrated into a PPGIS to obtain indicators on the CES of historical and cultural heritage.

4. Results

4.1. Synthesis of Information

Following a thorough review of the data sources, a network of routes with a total length of 243,775 m was obtained, of which 98% traverse in public domain, having maritime–terrestrial or livestock trail character. The residual 2% constitute pathways not in the public domain but open to public transit, having 4 km in length, which have been integrated to ensure network connectivity.

The nomenclature of all of these routes has been derived from the corresponding livestock trails wherever possible. In other cases, the nomenclature of the most significant locations to which they are connected has been employed. The resulting routes are, inevitably, very unequal in length, ranging from 1869 m for the shortest to 46,754 m for the longest.

Utilizing these selected pathways, as a restricted analytical framework within the overarching study area, the volume of data pertaining to cultural assets has been curtailed to solely encompass those assets that are visible to passers-by in the immediate vicinity of the pathways. Therefore, the visual basin of these routes was calculated by using a 10 m DEM with the ArcGIS Pro viewshed tool. The visual basin was overlaid with the points of interest, thus selecting the visible ones, which are just 700 points without duplicates, thus fulfilling specific objective 1.

There are 513 toponyms and 187 tangible assets. The latter includes 72 archeological sites, 40 architectural sites, 15 ethnological sites, 16 hotel and catering establishments, 16 waterworks, 25 sites belonging to overall cultural heritage, and 3 belonging to natural heritage (Figure 2 and Figure 3).

There are 108 tangible assets with bibliographies or other sources of information about them; In addition, 35 of them have some illustration, predominantly with historical photographs and sketches of cave paintings.

4.2. New App Development

The app we developed for mobile phones is entitled “Cultural Landscape of the Coastal Countryside of Cádiz”. It works with Leaflet, an open-source JavaScript library, and embraces OpenStreetMap as a base cartography.

The app’s presentation to the public on 3 April 2025 was preceded by the dissemination of a call through various channels, including leaflets, posters, and electronic communications, addressed to the local culture councils and tourist offices, as well as to eleven sports associations within the study area, devoted to hiking and cycling.

The application requires the user to register in advance (Figure 4a) to gain access to the navigation interface (Figure 4b). Then, the user can read the information contained in the points of interest by clicking their icon on the screen (Figure 4c).

The 513 toponyms do not contain any additional information, just the place name and its type (e.g., hydronym, place, communication routes). Of the landmarks that do contain information, 108 of them have been extensively documented, and 79 have no more information than their classification type. As illustrated in Figure 4c, the documented cases show successive screens displaying text and images on demand.

During the registration process, users are informed of the characteristics and purpose of the application. It should be noted that the application has not been conceived as a tourist tool or to facilitate access to protected properties, as most of them are not open to the public. Rather, the application is designed to allow users to enjoy, from a distance, the cultural assets’ contribution to the landscape. Focusing on the observer location reinforces the association between the digital information provided and place recognition, which is central for linking knowledge, emotions, and place branding.

It is important to note that the application only functions while the user is on the route. Upon the user’s departure from the designated route, the icons indicating the location of the sites are automatically deactivated. Furthermore, the location of the sensitive sites has been randomly altered to protect them from the attention of both curious onlookers and those wishing to damage or steal from them.

Participant activity using the app has been registered between 3 April and 27 May 2025, generating enough data to verify its operation and analyze the accumulated data. The total number of registered users was 60, and these users consulted the app a total of 2857 times, clicking on 543 PoIs. Of these, 1468 instances were to consult those points of interest, and 1389 instances were to display the information they contain.

It is important to underline that the app operates both as a methodological tool for data collection and as a practical output for heritage dissemination, reinforcing its dual role in the research design.

4.3. Data Analysis

4.3.1. Points of Interest

In consideration of the temporal and financial limitations imposed on the dissemination initiative, the number of downloads and users of the application has yielded a modest amount of data, albeit adequate to substantiate the operational integrity of the application, generate the cartography, and assess the cultural significance of each route. Figure 5 shows the user interactions, accumulated for each point of interest.

The heat map in

Table 4. Elements that accumulate more than 40 queries by users of the app. Source: own elaboration.

Tag	Elements	Category	Conservation Status
A	Trafalgar Cape	Natural/archeological/ Architectural heritage	Good
B	Hermitage of San Ambrosio	Archeological	In ruins, not open to the public
C	Windmills of Vejer	Cultural heritage	Good, not open to the public
D	Watermills of Santa Lucía	Cultural heritage	In ruins, not open to the public
E	Tajo de las Figuras	archeological	Good, not open to the public
F	Baelo Claudia	Archeological	Good, open to the public
G	Tarifa	Cultural heritage	Good, open to the public

reflects the most consulted nodes.

4.3.2. Routes of Interest

The most consulted points of interest are grouped into two axes, A–D (Trafalgar–Santa Lucía) and E (cave paintings around the Tajo de las Figuras), as well as into two isolated points of interest: the archeological site of Baelo Claudia and the town center of Tarifa.

Cape Trafalgar is distinguished by the presence of archeological sites, an Arab tower, and a lighthouse situated on a promontory adjacent to a remarkable tombolo, designated a natural monument. Its isolated position on the coastline gives it a unique character, at the southern end of a discontinuous axis where the ruins of the Hermitage of San Ambrosio, the windmills of Vejer, and the watermills of Santa Lucía are located. The latter are in a state of disrepair, yet the spring from which they draw their water and the surrounding verdant vegetation contribute to the popularity of this route.

The surroundings of the Tajo de las Figuras boast a total of twelve caves with remarkable examples of rock paintings. In addition, the area features a notable dolmen complex, comprising a total of fourteen dolmens, along with a singular Tholos, none of them open to the public. However, the elevated perspective and the renown of the Tajo de las Figuras render it a significant reference point in La Janda region.

Baelo Claudia is an archeological site that comprises a museum, library, conference room, rest area, and car parks. The location is distinguished by its privileged setting within the inlet of Bolonia, in close proximity to a dune that has been designated as a natural monument and regarded as one of the most noteworthy beaches in Spain. This area consistently attracts a significant number of visitors annually.

Tarifa village has gained a reputation as a popular tourist destination in the Strait of Gibraltar, a mere 13 km from Africa. The site possesses an old town with Moorish walls, a castle in excellent condition, and a lighthouse on the island of Las Palomas, which is the southernmost point in Europe.

Finally, in order to assess the ecosystem services of cultural heritage, the routes have been ranked according to the interest aroused by nearby points of interest. This way, specific objective 4 is achieved: the valuation of ecosystem services pertaining to historical-cultural heritage by means of public participation data integrated into a PPGIS.

This approach identifies the landscapes where the cultural factor arouses more interest and acquires greater conservation merit in the eyes of the public. This hierarchy is presented in Figure 6 and

Table 5. Mean heat map values ranking. Source: own elaboration.

Ranking	Name	Normalized Mean Heat Map Value
1	Santa Lucía	0.20328701
2	Vereda de la Muela	0.095764
3	Vereda de Cano	0.085285
4	Vejer–Zahora	0.084516
5	Hijuela del Aberajuco	0.0826
6	Trafalgar–Punta Camarinal	0.031094
7	San Ambrosio–Barbate	0.03087
8	Vejer–Barbate	0.02986
9	Conil–Trafalgar	0.02413
10	Punta Camarinal–Tarifa	0.02349
11	Manzanete–Tapatana	0.02084
12	Muelle de Conil– Conil	0.0115
13	Camino del Arroyo y Camino del Cojo	0.00852
14	Benalup–Playa de Los Lances	0.00427
15	Conil–Benalup	0.00269
16	Camino de Conil a Casas Viejas	0.00217
17	Pista de Ávila–Muelle de Conil	0.00097
18	Vereda Misericordia	0.0001

and detailed in the histograms in Appendix A.

The most interesting routes are situated in the vicinity of Vejer de la Frontera. Four of these are located in Santa Lucía and its surrounding area (ranking numbers 1, 2, 3, and 5), in a well-preserved rural environment, equipped with road access, hotels, and restaurants. The Vejer–Zahora route (ranking number 4) connects the windmills of Vejer, the hermitage of San Ambrosio, and the beach of Zahora.

The latter is connected to Barbate by routes of medium interest (ranking numbers 6, 7. and 8) that traverse the natural park: by the Cape of Trafalgar and the cliffs; by San Ambrosio, through the pine forest; and by the marshes of the natural park.

Other routes of medium interest (ranking numbers 9 and 10) extend from Conil to Trafalgar, and from Punta Camarinal to Tarifa. These routes run along a coastline in an excellent state of conservation, where the aforementioned attractions of Bolonia and Tarifa are joined by the Sierra de la Plata, with dolmen sites and cave paintings.

The Manzanete–Tapatana route (ranking number 11) is also of medium interest. The route traverses a beautiful landscape adjacent to the marshes of the Natural Park, a region characterized by a prevalence of archeological sites, until it reaches the former La Janda lagoon, where the remainder of a rich avian community suggests high potential for this wetland ecosystem to be restored.

The peripheral routes are of lesser interest due to the absence of cultural assets. However, the rural environment through which they pass contains numerous elements of interest, especially ethnological ones linked to the pastures and cork oak groves. The routes ranking, names, and detailed normalized mean heat map values are presented in Table 5.

When the enquiries made to the app are grouped by subject (Figure 7), it becomes immediately evident that the majority of these enquiries pertain to the subject of archeology, which is perhaps unsurprising given the well-documented history of anthropization of the territory. With regard to toponymy, the high number of queries is likely attributable to its extensive distribution rather than to the paucity of information it provides, despite its considerable value.

In contrast, cultural and architectural heritage, despite their scarcity, occupy third and fourth positions due to their significant appeal.

Finally, the remaining categories are under-represented in the dataset studied and, consequently, do not have a high number of queries despite the interest they may present.

5. Discussion

5.1. Cultural Routes

Following the design of the network of paths and the implementation of the app for the purpose of measuring user interest in the cultural heritage of La Janda, it becomes necessary to qualify the territory beyond the traditional natural/cultural dichotomy, as previously stated [20] when Veidemane et al. identified natural landscape areas as also having cultural values.

Historical trails reinforce the autochthonous values, traits, and identity of the population [35]. These trails are social markers of memory and embody heritage values associated with the landscape [36]. The territory, and more specifically the trails that allow us to explore it, becomes both a resource and a support for cultural tourism routes, which must consider two common indicators: heritage and territory [37].

The overall value of cultural itineraries and routes is greater than the sum of their individual elements and is essential for their proper understanding and appreciation [59]. The starting point in defining these routes is the selection of milestones that give them meaning, integrating the various existing elements and structuring the space [60].

To connect the landmarks along the route, network analysis usually stands out among the GIS tools. Flexible and dynamic, it provides efficient routes between specified landmarks based on the shortest cumulative length; minimum cost; maximum flow restrictions; or the optimization of the route through several nodes, returning to the starting point… [61].

To consider the landscape in a network analysis, one option is to locate observation points. However, the scarcity or exceptional nature of viewpoints undervalues the route, where a multitude of perceptual stimuli accumulates, which should not go unnoticed in the route design phase.

When it is neither possible nor desirable to access heritage assets scattered throughout the territory, but a visual connection is sufficient to appreciate their presence, it is possible to dispense with rigid network analysis and use other more flexible GIS tools to assess the heritage value of the route itself as a historical–cultural itinerary. A key tool is viewshed, which establishes heritage visibility from the trails. As most of them are not accessible, the best way to grasp their cultural value is not to put a foot on them, but to have a view from the outside, helped with relevant documentation.

Where there is communications infrastructure, telematic means are able to supply accurate information in the precise time and place that this input is needed to qualify the landscape’s historical dimension.

By quantifying user numbers interested in every landmark, this value may be symbolized as heat maps to qualify trails as embodying heritage values associated with the landscape.

Also, the required decentralization of tourist flows towards rural and peri-urban areas [33] can be included in the design of routes to reach a social and territorial balance as desired. Regarding the lack of information on the maritime cultural landscape, it can be extensively documented to avoid its overexploitation [39].

These types of solutions, supported by PPGISs and soft computing techniques, help build territorial narratives consistent with sustainability, inclusion, and tourism innovation [62]. Our findings reinforce previous results on participatory CES mapping in coastal environments (e.g., Veidemane et al. [20]; Zhao et al. [22]), but also expand them by explicitly linking CES valuation to territorial branding strategies, which has been rarely addressed in the literature

In this sense, our methodological proposal aligns with territorial marketing strategies by facilitating audience segmentation, leveraging endogenous resources, and improving the visitor experience [63], as well as linking CES assessment and cultural heritage management using PPGISs [48].

5.2. Cultural Landmarks

Understanding how people value territory requires identifying key landmarks and their potential integration into spatial narratives that structure the landscape [60]. This structuring also offers a narrative backbone for the development of place-based marketing campaigns. By positioning heritage nodes as storytelling anchors, the territorial discourse can evolve towards more integrated and community-centered destination branding strategies [64]. archeological sites, in particular, enable a diachronic reading of landscape anthropization, illustrating how the cultural landscape has been shaped over time [65].

Landscape archeology involves the consideration of archeological sites within their original contexts, with the objective of elucidating the settlement strategies employed by pre-existing cultures. These cultures served as the models for subsequent territorial structures, and they were the inheritors of already humanized territories. Over time, a variety of heritage landmarks of different types and chronologies have accumulated in these regions [66].

These cases may be understood as palimpsests. In strict sense, palimpsests are reused parchments where traces of earlier texts are preserved. They suggest an analogous reading of the material world from the archeological school of temporal perspectivism [65]. The archeological components of the landscape—whole, hidden, destroyed, or disturbed—can be understood as superimposed categories at variable spatial and temporal scales that relate to each other through different processes and phenomena.

They can be called true palimpsests, when all traces of previous activities have been removed except the most recent; cumulative, when successive layers of activity remain superimposed on one another without loss of evidence but are so reworked and mixed that it is difficult or impossible to separate them into their original components; or spatial, when activities take place spatially segregated. If combined on a much larger scale, they are called sedimentary palimpsests, which characterize the surface of the broader landscape.

For example, in a rural landscape recently modified by new crops or buildings, previous elements may be preserved, such as land plots, roads, or canals, whether functional or in disuse, along with abandoned archeological sites or those open to the public, which in some cases may play a central role in the territory due to their cultural relevance.

Our case study, the region of La Janda, is a good example of symbolic stratification, which is often found in diachronic cave paintings. In the Tajo de las Figuras caves, the greatest known diversity of bird representations in cave paintings is present, revealing a total of 962 pictograms, 208 of which represent birds. Of these, 150 have been identified as belonging to 10 different families [67].

The transcendental battles of Guadalete (711), Salado (1340), and Trafalgar (1808) took place nearby, milestones for Islamic, Hispanic, and British empire expansion. These historic events hold deep significance in medieval and contemporary history and are symbols, temporarily stratified, attesting to the deep roots of the historical relevance of La Janda.

This palimpsest perspective highlights the symbolic layering of the territory and strengthens its potential as a narrative asset for place branding, turning archeological and historical strata into anchors of territorial identity.

5.3. Providing Information and Collecting Data

Digital media have proven effective in engaging local populations and capturing spatial preferences. These tools, particularly GISs, facilitate the correlation between user interests and heritage features, and support the design, evaluation, and dissemination of diverse territorial exploration alternatives tailored to different user goals [34]. Furthermore, GISs can be employed to construct public participation processes (PPGISs).

Nonetheless, the application of PPGISs in urban and rural area planning still encounters epistemological, cultural, and technological barriers [68]. These intertwined barriers often limit participation yet also highlight the relevance of inclusive tools that integrate subjective and objective spatial knowledge.

Numerous disciplines have successfully applied PPGISs: in archeology [69]; to maintain the traditional utilization of communal pastures [70]; to map invasive species or debris in aquatic, lake and marine environments [71,72]; and to identify marine and coastal values, both qualitatively and quantitatively [73]. Also, the combination of soundscapes with cartographic landscape values in the design of urban green infrastructure was proposed [74].

Green infrastructure planning—focused on ecosystem connectivity—has benefited significantly from PPGIS tools. These systems have helped reduce cultural barriers by capturing public preferences for open spaces based on recreational opportunities [75]; equitable access [76]; and cultural perceptions of both formal and informal green areas [77].

In this context, the mapping of values through participatory methods enables a more nuanced understanding of social and cultural dimensions of land use. Brown et al. [78], for instance, used landscape social metrics to identify significant associations between values and public land type, IUCN protected area classification, and levels of management protection.

Fagerholm et al. [79] employed PPGISs to ascertain the associations between the subjective well-being of local residents in agroforestry landscapes and the spatial distribution of ecosystem services. These services, which are both natural and cultural in nature, must be accompanied by strategic plans that are adapted to the prevailing social and political context through participatory assessment. Tourism planning emerges here as a key field of application. Cultural routes and symbolic landscapes can be leveraged not only to protect heritage but also to enhance the ecological, economic, and social fabric of a region. Participatory mapping thus aligns with sustainable place marketing strategies that aim to promote identity-driven tourism models based on local values.

Last but not least, the lack of data to assess CESs, which has been repeatedly pointed out, can be alleviated by obtaining user data through these means.

5.4. Recommendations

The following lines of action have been proposed for the future:

• The adjacency of heritage elements from disparate chronologies and characteristics discourages the promotion of homogeneous thematic routes. Instead, it is more advisable to consider most of the routes as examples of historical palimpsests.
• The heritage elements analyzed are in starkly divergent states of conservation. The range extends from those that are musealized and subject to access control, such as the Roman city of Baelo Claudia or the Castle and the lighthouse in the Las Palomas Island, in Tarifa, to those where access to the protected property is prohibited, as in the case of the 22 shelters and caves with cave paintings, among which those of the Tajo de las Figuras are particularly noteworthy.
• It is evident that these shortcomings hinder the possibilities of developing both cultural and nature tourism, the high potential of which is illustrated in the content of the cave paintings in the Tajo de las Figuras.
• The area continues to boast a rich and varied avian population, suggesting that the potential for ornithological tourism in the region remains significant. The Laguna de la Janda, a former site of ornithological significance, is well-positioned to support the development of this niche tourism sector, offering an ideal complement to the existing cultural tourism offerings. The adoption of an environmentally sustainable tourism model, characterized by its high added value, would contribute to the region’s economic development while ensuring the conservation of its natural heritage.
• The most unfavorable scenario pertains to the hermitage of San Ambrosio and numerous water mills in Santa Lucía, which are in a state of disrepair and dilapidation. In the latter case, the restoration and opening to the public of at least one of them, as well as some of the nine windmills, the 16 old coastal watchtowers, and the lighthouses of Roche, Trafalgar, Camarinal and Tarifa, is particularly recommendable.
• The archeological heritage of a region possesses the capacity to significantly influence the conceptualization of its identity and the vision for its future development. This potential derives from the ability of archeology to illuminate the region’s origins, thereby fostering a deeper understanding of its historical and cultural underpinnings.
• It is strongly advised that an archeological park be established in Cádiz, encompassing megalithic sites. This proposal is contingent upon the establishment of enclosures that would facilitate regulated access to the dolmen complexes of Aciscar, Almarchal, Breuil-Celemín, Caheruela-Caballero, Canchorrera, Charcones, Caño Arado, Facinas, Moraleja and Sierra Mariana.
• The Necropolis of Los Algarbes is a highly relevant archeological site, which is properly enclosed and available to the public upon request.
• The Tholos de Peñarroyo, which was recently the subject of an excavation, is located beneath the waters of the Celemin reservoir except during long drought periods. It is necessary that the tholos is relocated to a higher level to avoid damages and to allow visits, especially taking into account its singularity in a context where there are numerous dolmens, but there is no other tholos.
• The enhanced accessibility of protected assets makes a difference in the promotion of cultural tourism. The development of an application similar to the one that has been presented could facilitate the dissemination of crucial information regarding access conditions and visiting hours as well. Furthermore, the incorporation of augmented reality technology could serve to illustrate virtual reconstructions of the distinctive settlement characteristics of each historical period (e.g., Neolithic settlements, Roman villas), or significant historical events.
• It is unavoidable to acknowledge the inherent values of land uses, both natural and ethnological. Furthermore, it is essential to recognize the significance of fauna and livestock in these areas. The wetlands and watch points of the Strait of Gibraltar are of particular interest and should be given due consideration.
• It is estimated that seven species of cetacean pass through the Strait. Furthermore, the migratory passage between Europe and Africa brings together hundreds of thousands of birds belonging to more than 300 species twice a year.
• With regard to livestock, the Janda region is considered to be one of the most significant areas for the breeding of fighting cattle, and the Retinto cattle are also a long-standing part of the local landscape.
• The natural, agricultural, and livestock environment of the livestock trails should be appreciated in a sustainable and beneficial way to provide benefits for all. In order to mitigate the strong heat of the summer climate, it is essential that these areas are reforested.
• In a similar vein, to facilitate the movement of individuals through the Maritime Terrestrial Public Domain, the provision of shaded areas and drinking water supply beyond the hotel and catering facilities should be considered. These facilities should be located in the vicinity of the Eurovelo, a long-distance cycle lane recently constructed along the Cadiz coastline.

5.5. Ecosystem Services Valuation and Sustainable Development Goals

Of course, the methods employed for the valuation of ecosystem services are not impartial. The value assigned is contingent on the method used, and the integration of diverse methods is essential for decision-making [80]. Consequently, socio-cultural valuation must consider the beneficiaries of ecosystem services in general and, in particular, the inhabitants of the areas that provide them and their particular needs, customs and preferences [81], as well as their perceptions, worldviews, and beliefs [82]. This is coherent with Daily et al.’s [17] proposal for strategic plans for the provision of ecosystem services based on the social and political context.

In this sense, Czembrowski et al. [83] linked two different perspectives of socio-cultural value by assessing the perception of urban green spaces through public participation and contrasting this valuation with the hedonic pricing of green spaces. In formal green spaces, valuation is consistent with the impact on property prices; in informal green spaces, different perceptions are seen according to the monetary and non-monetary approach.

That is the reason why the impact of the increase or decrease in one service on others (trade-off) also need to be carefully evaluated—particularly the tensions between provisioning and regulating services, where frequently the increase in one of them implies the decrease in the other, although not necessarily [84]. The comprehensive valuation of ecosystem services facilitates the determination of their values, as well as the trade-offs and synergies between them.

In the absence of such valuation, it is impossible to predict the evolution of territorial balances and to make properly informed decisions in planning and management, both in urban and land use planning and in the various economic sectors involved, especially if we ignore CESs like the ones mentioned above [18] and the impact that these omissions may have on the trade-offs and the variations in the appreciation of the CESs when users are forced to prioritize, or when progress is made in the planning and management processes [21,22,23].

Despite this, CESs frequently generate synergies with provisioning and regulating functions by fostering awareness and complementary income in the agricultural, fishing, and forestry sectors. Nevertheless, stringent regulation of cultural activities should be made to avert deleterious consequences, including those pertaining to cultural assets and activities that are incompatible with conservation of natural spaces, private properties, and places not suitable for general public use.

In our study case, this is the main reason to be very careful in the protection of sensitive assets, such as archeological sites, which is why we have chosen to hide their exact location to prevent uncontrolled access and vandalism.

It is important to note the contribution of the ecosystem services benefits, either directly or indirectly, to the following Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda [85]:

• SDG3: Ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all at all ages;
• SDG4: Quality education;
• SDG8: Promoting inclusive and sustainable economic growth, employment, and decent work for all;
• SDG9: Building resilient infrastructure, promoting sustainable industrialization, and fostering innovation;
• SDG11: Making cities more inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable;
• SDG14: Conserving and sustainably using oceans, seas, and marine resources;
• SDG15: Sustainably managing forests, combating desertification, halting and reversing land degradation, and halting biodiversity loss;
• SDG17: Revitalizing the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development.

As a synthetic description of the theoretical contribution and practical significance of this contribution, we consider territorial landmarks especially useful when they do not remain ignored and isolated as just an academic study object. They are also sources of data about population cultural interests, and these data are useful to deepen and spread the benefits of scientific investigation.

The territorial vectors of this spread are the surrounding trails, as they embody heritage values associated with the landscape, linking key landmarks to each other through spatial narratives. Reading the cultural landscape as a palimpsest makes it easier to understand how several superimposed processes working at different spatial and temporal scales shape our geographical context, our identity, and our territorial brand.

This way we can perceive how our personal interests correlate with heritage feature conservation. Encouraging individual involvement in heritage valuation breaks epistemological, cultural, and technological barriers for the social construction of cultural landscape through PPGISs. In other words, we can reach a balanced model of socio-environmental relationship.

To reach that end, all of the CESs should be valued. Omissions decrease their synergies and make trad-offs remain ignored, slowing our progress towards achieving the SDGs.

5.6. Limitations and Future Research Lines

In addition to the modest nature of this contribution to the SDGs, it is necessary to acknowledge the limitations of our contribution, which we intend to address in future work.

First, due to the preliminary nature of this work, we had to use exclusively cultural landmarks and place names. Land use and ethnographic content should enrich the enjoyment of the cultural landscape, although its incorporation requires arduous implementation to be accomplished in future works.

Second, besides scientific divulgation information, complementary documentation can be included, e.g., accessibility, public opening hours, or audio guides of the most relevant landmarks, as well as access to transportation or hospitality infrastructure, to make the experience more comfortable and affordable. This is a different aspect to be approached in a broader work not strictly focusing on methodology as the project we are currently presenting.

6. Conclusions

This study demonstrates the effectiveness of participatory and spatialized approaches to assess the cultural ecosystem services of heritage landscapes, using the case of La Janda in Cádiz, Spain. Joining PPGISs and mobile applications, the study mapped local preferences and revealed the symbolic, historical, and esthetic values of dispersed heritage sites beyond urban areas.

This way we attenuate the lack of data to measure societal values and preferences in the assessment of cultural heritage ecosystem services that have gone unvalued for a long time. Promoting public involvement through the utilization of telematics is an attractive and efficient tool in its implementation, as well as highly cost-effective.

This efficiency is even higher taking into account the effect of development and transfer of technologies that disseminate the benefits of tourism through outdoor activities throughout the territory. It has been shown to have a positive impact on local development by reducing seasonality and pressure on the coastline and increasing synergies between tourism and various sectors of the economy, especially those that benefit little from seaside tourism as they are located on the second line of the coast.

So, the incorporation of cultural ecosystem service valuation into a PPGIS is strongly needed for several reasons. Firstly, it is essential for our own conservation as a species in the face of the threat of global change. Secondly, it is necessary to preserve heritage assets, whose intrinsic conservation merits are increased by adding an ecological dimension of value. Thirdly, it can be used as a strategy to defend the territory, reinforcing the synergy between its natural and cultural values to reinforce both and, with them, the local economic structure.

From the standpoint of sustainable territorial marketing, the findings of this study underscore the potential of digital tools and public participation as instruments for value-based promotion of cultural landscapes. By aligning ecosystem service assessment with tourism communication strategies, it is possible to design place-branding initiatives that not only attract visitors but also promote local stewardship, identity pride, cultural continuity, and Post-Normal Science engagement.

This mobilization of resources underlying in the cultural landscape, which is often unnoticed, involves two benefits being obtained simultaneously: the social valuation of heritage assets is improved through the dissemination of existing documentation on them, thus facilitating their preservation; and outdoor activities are promoted among the population, stimulated by the enjoyment of the natural and cultural values of the territory.

Accelerating these beneficial processes will definitively break down the epistemological, cultural, and technological barriers to public participation in the social construction of the cultural landscape, in its qualification, and in the quantification of the interest it arouses, thereby increasing the benefits we receive from the environment, that is, ecosystem services.