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Article

Alterations in Soil Arthropod Communities During the Degradation of Bayinbuluk Alpine Grasslands in China Closely Related to Soil Carbon and Nitrogen

by
Tianle Kou
1,
Yang Hu
1,
Yuanbin Jia
1,
Maidinuer Abulaizi
2,
Yuxin Tian
2,
Zailei Yang
1,3,* and
Hongtao Jia
1,3,4,*
1
College of Resources and Environment, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China
2
College of Grassland Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China
3
Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Soil and Plant Ecological Processes, Urumqi 830052, China
4
College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Land 2025, 14(7), 1478; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14071478
Submission received: 24 June 2025 / Revised: 14 July 2025 / Accepted: 15 July 2025 / Published: 17 July 2025
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Abstract

Grassland degradation influences arthropod community structure and abundance, which, in turn, modulate element cycling in grassland ecosystems through predation and soil structure modification. In order to explore the influence of degradation on arthropods in Bayinbuluk alpine grassland, we selected four degraded transects (i.e., non-degraded: ND, lightly degraded: LD, moderately degraded: MD, and heavily degraded: HD) to collect soil samples and determine their composition, spatial distribution, and diversity patterns, in addition to the factors driving community change. Following identification and analysis, the following results were obtained: (1) A total of 342 soil arthropods were captured in this study, belonging to 4 classes, 11 orders, and 24 families. (2) With the intensification of degradation, the dominant groups exhibited significant alteration: the initial dominant groups were Pygmephoridae and Microdispidae; however, as the level of degradation became more severe, the dominant groups gradually shifted to Campodeidae and Formicidae, as these groups are more adaptable to environmental changes. (3) Common groups included six families, including Parasitoididae and Onychiuridae, and rare groups included 16 families, such as Macrochelidae. (4) As degradation intensified, both the species diversity and population size of the arthropod community increased. Our Redundancy Analysis (RDA) results demonstrated that the key driving factors affecting the arthropod community were soil organic carbon (SOC), electrical conductivity (EC), soil total nitrogen (TN), and available nitrogen (AN). The above results indicate that grassland degradation, by altering soil properties, increases arthropod diversity, induces alterations in the dominant species, and reduces mite abundance, with these changes being closely related to soil carbon and nitrogen contents. The results of this study provide basic data for understanding the changes in soil arthropod communities during the degradation of alpine grasslands and also offer support for the sustainable development of soil organisms in grassland ecosystems.

1. Introduction

Grasslands, a vital ecosystem type, encompass approximately 25% of the global land surface area and 40% of China’s total land area, exerting a significant influence on soil erosion control and livestock production dynamics [1]. The Bayinbuluk alpine grassland, situated within the Central Asian Arid Zone, constitutes a pivotal element of mountain steppe ecosystems [2]. It plays an indispensable role in maintaining regional ecological balance, protecting biodiversity, the inheritance of nomadic culture, and providing important ecological services [3,4]. In recent decades, against the backdrop of global climate change, the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland has been synergistically affected by factors such as climate warming, overgrazing, inappropriate land use, and other factors, leading to tremendous changes in the alpine grassland habitat [5]. There have been significant changes in community composition and structure: the importance value of Stipa purpurea, a dominant plant species, has decreased; the height, coverage, density, and aboveground biomass of vegetation have gradually declined; and various grassland degradation processes, dominated by desertification, have been increasingly intensifying. As a result, the balance of the grassland ecosystem has been disrupted and has fallen into an unstable state [6].
Soil arthropods constitute a vital organism group within grassland ecosystems [7]. They assume a pivotal role in numerous ecological processes, including material cycling, energy flow, and the enhancement of soil structure within ecosystems [8,9,10]. Soil arthropods also exert a facilitating effect on the restoration of soil functions by mediating the decomposition of organic matter, modulating nutrient cycling processes (such as nitrogen mineralization), and stimulating microbial activity [11]. It is noteworthy that soil arthropods significantly contribute to the decomposition of non-foliar litter. The results of numerous studies have demonstrated that, on a global scale, these organisms enhance the mass loss of non-foliar litter by approximately 32.3%, consequently expediting soil nutrient cycling processes [12]. The abundance, diversity, and functional attributes of soil arthropod communities can be further enhanced by diversifying crop rotation practices, ultimately fostering improvements in soil health [13].
However, the community structure and functional characteristics of soil arthropods are governed by a multitude of environmental factors. Notably, abiotic elements (encompassing soil temperature, moisture content, and pH values) combined with biotic elements (such as vegetation diversity, microbial communities, and other soil-inhabiting organisms) synergistically determine the composition and functional traits of soil arthropod communities [14]. The results of one study indicate that soil arthropods exhibit high sensitivity and rapid responsiveness to the degradation processes of alpine meadows on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. The research findings emphasize that moderate-to-severe degradation significantly affects the structural composition, species diversity, and abundance of soil macrofaunal communities. Key determinants of these changes include soil available phosphorus, potassium content, pH value, and vegetation height. Notably, soil fauna in moderately degraded meadows are more susceptible to the impacts of climate change [15]. Studies on grassland degradation caused by increasing soil salinization have highlighted that the community structure of ground-dwelling arthropods in these ecosystems has changed. The community structure of arthropods in salinized grasslands is jointly shaped by vegetation morphology and soil physicochemical properties, and specific environmental factors have varying degrees of influence on arthropods at different trophic levels [16]. Conversely, investigations into grassland degradation within the Songnen Grassland, triggered by diverse degrees of salinization, have unveiled that varying levels of salinization yield mark disparities in the composition of soil fauna, while also exerting a substantial influence on the configuration and biodiversity of soil animal communities [17]. Grassland deterioration inevitably leads to alterations in soil arthropod communities; however, the harsh environmental conditions characteristic of arid alpine grasslands may confer upon them unique response mechanisms [18]. For instance, soil fauna exhibit restricted metabolic rates and dispersal abilities in low-temperature conditions, potentially intensifying the adverse effects of degradation processes on their communities. Conversely, the liberation of carbon and nitrogen resources, stemming from years of permafrost degradation, could reconfigure community dynamics via a “resource pulse” phenomenon [19].
In light of the above findings, we hypothesize that during the degradation process of the alpine grassland in Bayinbuluk, there will be significant alterations in the characteristics of the soil arthropod community [20]. The primary driver of these changes is the alteration of soil physical and chemical properties [21]. The Bayinbuluk alpine grassland, a “wet island” and ecological core in the Tianshan Mountains, boasts multiple strategic functions, acting as a strategic ecological highland integrating ecological, carbon sink, biological, soil and water conservation, cultural, and climate-regulating functions [22]. We therefore aimed to investigate the impact of degradation on the characteristics of soil arthropod communities in the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland and identify the underlying driving factors. The research findings offer a crucial scientific foundation for the development of conservation strategies during grassland degradation, facilitating the sustainable management of Bayinbuluk alpine grassland ecosystems and safeguarding regional ecological stability [23].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Site

The study area (82.98–83.51° E, 42.75–43.00° N) is located in the northwestern part of Hejing County, Bayin’guoleng Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang, at the southern foot of the middle section of the Tianshan Mountains, with a total area of 15,540 km2. The grassland types are mainly alpine grassland and alpine meadow [24]. Based on preliminary monitoring by our team, the following region-specific data were obtained: the average annual precipitation is 280.5 mm; the average annual temperature is −4.8 °C, with the minimum temperature in January reaching −48 °C and the maximum temperature in July reaching 30.5 °C; the average annual evaporation is 1132.4 mm; the annual number of snow days is 137, and the maximum snow depth is 45 cm; and there is no absolute frost-free period. The study area has a typical alpine climate and is known as the “air wet island” in the Central Asian arid zone, playing a crucial role in the balance of water resources in southern Xinjiang [25].

2.2. Experimental Design

In the study area, grasslands with relatively consistent natural conditions, such as slope aspect and altitude, were selected. The division of degraded alpine grasslands was based on indicators (including plant species, coverage, height, and biomass). With reference to the degraded grassland classification method proposed by Su Daxue and combined with the actual situation in the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland, the degraded areas were initially delineated. Around the Bayinbuluk Swan Lake, through field investigation and verification, degraded transects were selected in the study area. The Bayinbuluk alpine grassland was divided into four degraded areas, namely a non-degraded area (ND), lightly degraded area (LD), moderately degraded area (MD), and heavily degraded area (HD).
Soil arthropod sampling was carried out in the test area in July 2023 during the peak plant growth period. In each of the four degraded areas, a 20 m × 20 m sampling plot for soil arthropods was set up. Following the diagonal method, nine replicate samples were collected using a soil auger with a diameter of 7 cm. The collected soil samples were thoroughly mixed, and three 50 g portions were weighed and placed into sample bags as samples for soil arthropods. The collection of these samples is necessary because, in the degraded areas of the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland, shifts in the dominant populations of soil arthropods are highly likely to affect soil physical and chemical properties. For instance, a greater abundance of soil arthropods will accelerate the decomposition of litter, thereby influencing the cycling of soil carbon and nitrogen. In addition, one soil sample was collected simultaneously, passed through a 2 mm standard sieve in the field to remove gravel and roots, mixed homogeneously, and brought back to the laboratory to be dried and passed through a 1 mm and 0.25 mm standard sieve for determination of the basic physical and chemical properties of the soil (Figure 1).

2.3. Determination of Soil Chemical Properties

Soil pH was determined using a pH meter (FE28, METTLER TOLE DO, Shanghai, China) (water/soil ratio 5:1), and soil electrical conductivity (EC) was determined using a conductivity meter (DDSJ-308F, Shanghai Yidian Scientific Instrument Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) (water-soil ratio 5:1). Soil organic carbon (SOC) was determined using the sulfuric acid–potassium dichromate external heating method, soil available nitrogen (AN) was determined using the alkaline diffusion method, soil available phosphorus (AP) was determined using the molybdenum–antimony colorimetric method, soil available potassium (AK) was determined using a flame photometer, soil total nitrogen (TN) was determined using a Kjeldahl nitrogen meter, soil total phosphorus (TP) was determined using the molybdenum–antimony–scandium colorimetric method, and soil total potassium (TK) was determined using a flame photometer [26].

2.4. Soil Arthropod Sample Isolation and Characterization

The soil samples returned to the laboratory were used to separate soil arthropods using the dry funnel method (Tullgren’s method). The separation time was 48 h, the temperature was controlled at about 35 °C, the soil arthropod samples obtained from the separation process were preserved by using 75% ethanol, and soil arthropod identification was completed rapidly [27].
The soil arthropods obtained after separation were characterized under a body microscope (SMZ-161-BLED, MOTIC, Xiamen, China) and a light microscope (XSP-6CA, Shanghai Optical Instrument Factory, Shanghai, China) for the identification of the small soil arthropods collected. The main references evaluated included “Search and Illustration of Soil Animals of China” [28], “Insect Taxonomic Search” [29], and other relevant books.
According to different functional groups, soil animals were classified into omnivores (Omnivore, Om), saprophytes (Saprophyte, Sa), phytophages (Phytophage, Ph), and predators (Predator, Pr), and the proportion of each functional group was calculated [30]. The Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H′), Pielou evenness index (Js), Margalef richness index (D), and Simpson dominance index (C) were used to analyze the community diversity of arthropods in different forest types. The calculation formulas are as follows:
H ′ = − ∑ i = 1 S P i l n P i
Js = H′/lnS
D = (S − 1)/lnN
C = ∑ i = 1 S n i / N 2
In the formula: Pi = Ni/N; Ni represents the number of individuals in the i-th group; N represents the total number of individuals in the community; S represents the number of groups in the community.
Diversity classification: individuals accounting for more than 10% of the total number were considered as dominant taxa, 1–10% were considered as common taxa, and less than 1% were considered as rare taxa [31].
Microsoft Excel 2019 was used for data processing; IBM SPSS Statistics 23.0 was utilized for one-way and two-way ANOVA, and Origin 2021Pro was selected for vertical change plots and correlation heat maps. Redundancy analysis (RDA) was plotted using Canoco 5 [32].

3. Results

3.1. Soil Arthropod Community Composition in Degraded Alpine Grassland Areas

A total of 342 soil arthropods were collected from alpine grassland soil, belonging to 4 classes, 11 orders, and 24 families (Table 1). The dominant groups were Pygmephoridae and Microdispidae within the class Acariformes, accounting for 47.33% and 10.53% of the total catches, respectively. The common groups included Parasitidae (Parasitiformes), Laelapidae (Mesostigmata, a suborder of Parasitiformes often referred to in the context of mites), Onychiuridae (Collembola), Poduridae, Campodeidae (Diplura), and Formicidae (Hymenoptera), which accounted for 5.56%, 6.43%, 4.09%, 6.14%, 5.56%, and 4.67% of the total sample, respectively. The remaining 16 families were considered rare taxa, collectively accounting for 9.64% of the total sample.

3.2. Effect of Biochar Addition on Soil Organic Carbon Fractions in Degraded Grasslands

Grassland degradation led to notable alterations in soil properties. Specifically, soil pH exhibited the lowest value under no degradation (ND) conditions, with a minimum of 8.02; in comparison, it reached the highest value under heavy degradation (HD), with a maximum of 8.32. The soil pH increased by 3.74% under HD conditions compared to ND. Soil EC, SOM, TN, TP, TK, AN, and AK all reached their peak levels under HD and their lowest levels under ND. Furthermore, compared to ND, the soil chemical properties under HD decreased by 60.49%, 89.8%, 95.19%, 62.33%, 80.89%, 65.09%, and 71.76%, respectively. Notably, soil AP did not differ significantly under ND, LD, MD, and HD (Table 2).

3.3. Distribution Patterns of Soil Arthropod Functional Groups in the Degradation Zones of Alpine Grasslands

The abundance of soil arthropod communities varied across different degradation zones within alpine grasslands, with 127, 143, 56, and 16 individuals captured in the non-degraded (ND), lightly degraded (LD), moderately degraded (MD), and heavily degraded (HD) zones, respectively. Notably, the LD zone exhibited the greatest number of soil arthropods; in comparison, the HD zone contained the lowest (Figure 2a). Furthermore, the distribution patterns of functional groups also differed across degradation zones: Omnivorous (Om) soil arthropods demonstrated a gradual decline in percentage from ND to HD. Saprophytic (Sa) soil arthropods attained their highest proportion of 53.57% in the MD zone. Phytophagous (Ph) soil arthropods were only detected in the LD, MD, and HD zones. Predatory (Pr) soil arthropods dominated the HD zone, accounting for 50% of the total (Figure 2b).

3.4. Distribution Patterns of Dominant Soil Arthropod Species in the Degradation Zones of Alpine Grasslands

The soil arthropod communities in the non-degraded (ND), lightly degraded (LD), mod-erately degraded (MD), and heavily degraded (HD) zones were characterized into 10, 10, 11, and 11 taxonomic groups, respectively. Within the ND zone, Pygmephoridae emerged as the predominant family, constituting 58.27% of the relative abundance. Similarly, in the LD zone, Pygmephoridae maintained its dominance with a relative abundance of 58.04%. The MD zone exhibited a more complex taxonomic structure, with multiple dominant taxa, including Microdispidae (17.86%), Onychiuridae (10.71%), Poduridae (12.5%), Campodeidae (19.64%), and Formicidae (10.71%). In contrast, the HD zone was dominated by two primary taxa, Campodeidae and Formicidae, each contributing 12.5% to the community composition (Figure 3).

3.5. Variation Characteristics of Soil Arthropod Diversity Indices During the Degradation Process of Bayinbuluk Alpine Grasslands

During the degradation process in the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland, the Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H′) exhibited a decline in the lightly degraded area (LD) within each degradation zone (ND, LD, MD, and HD). Subsequently, it gradually increased in the moderately degraded area (MD) and the heavily degraded area (HD), although no significant differences were observed among the groups. The Pielou evenness index (Js) followed a similar pattern to the Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H′). In contrast, the Margalef richness index (D) demonstrated a progressive increase with the escalation of degradation, attaining a peak value of 1.08 in the heavily degraded area (HD). Conversely, the Simpson dominance index (C) gradually decreased, reaching its lowest point of 0.34 in the heavily degraded area (HD) (Table 3).

3.6. Correlation Between Soil Fauna and Soil Environmental Factors

The correlation between soil arthropod communities and soil chemical properties varied across different degraded zones of the alpine grassland. Specifically, in the non-degraded ND zone, Microdispidae exhibited a significant negative correlation with Laelapidae. In addition, Muscidae displayed a significant positive correlation with soil organic carbon (SOC); simultaneously, Carabidae showed a significant negative correlation with total phosphorus (TP) (Figure 4a). Furthermore, Lucanidae was found to exhibit a significant negative correlation with both SOC and Muscidae (Figure 4a).
Within the lightly degraded (LD) zone of the mildly degraded area, Microdispidae demonstrated a significant positive correlation with electrical conductivity (EC), with Onychiuridae also exhibiting a significant positive correlation with EC. Conversely, Campodeidae showed a significant negative correlation with alkaline nitrogen (AN). In the moderately degraded (MD) area, the tube thrips family (Phlaeothripidae) displayed a significant positive correlation with total nitrogen (TN) (Figure 4b,c).
Within the heavily degraded (HD) zone, Onychiuridae, Curculionidae, Pselaphidae, and Tenebrionidae demonstrated significant positive correlations with soil organic matter (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN), while exhibiting significant negative correlations with electrical conductivity (EC). In contrast, Campodeidae and Formicidae demonstrated correlations that were exactly opposite to those of the aforementioned taxa (Figure 4d).

3.7. Redundancy Analysis of Soil Fauna with Soil Environmental Factors

The correlation between soil arthropod communities and soil chemical properties exhibited variations across different degraded zones of the alpine grassland (Figure 4). Specifically, the correlation was pronounced in the non-degraded (ND) and lightly degraded (LD) areas; in comparison, it was relatively weak in the moderately degraded (MD) and heavily degraded (HD) areas. Our RDA analysis results demonstrate that Campodeidae are significantly affected by chemical properties; in comparison, chemical properties have a weaker effect on Formicidae; AP was positively correlated with the abundance of nine families, such as Terigoidae, Onychiuridae, Poduridae, and Microdispidae, and negatively correlated with Tenebrionidae and Curculionidae. Among the soil chemical properties, soil organic matter (SOC), electrical conductivity (EC), total nitrogen (TN), and alkaline nitrogen (AN) emerged as the primary drivers influencing the composition of soil arthropod communities in alpine grasslands (Figure 5).

4. Discussion

4.1. The Relationship Between Soil Arthropods and Soil Physicochemical Properties During Grassland Degradation

Arid-zone alpine grasslands exhibit a variety of vegetation types, with significant spatial disparities in soil types. Soil arthropods, highly responsive to environmental shifts, may experience alterations in community composition, structure, and diversity due to degradation [33,34]. A multitude of studies have highlighted that soil pH is a critical factor influencing and shaping soil arthropod populations. Specifically, certain species of hoppers exhibit heightened sensitivity to fluctuations in soil pH, which may impact their densities and community dynamics by disrupting their physiological functions and reproductive capabilities [35,36]. This finding aligns with our research. The nutrient composition of soil, encompassing organic carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, plays a pivotal role in the survival and reproduction of soil arthropod communities [37]. In our investigation, variations were observed in the correlations between soil arthropod communities and soil chemical properties across different degraded zones within the alpine grassland. Nevertheless, irrespective of whether the zone is non-degraded (ND), lightly degraded (LD), moderately degraded (MD), or heavily degraded (HD), alterations in arthropod communities are strongly correlated with the soil’s physicochemical attributes, with a pronounced emphasis on soil organic carbon and soil nitrogen. Soil organic carbon is of vital importance. Soils with a high content of organic carbon usually provide a richer food source for soil arthropods, which is conducive to their growth and reproduction [38]. Our research results indicate that the key driving factors affecting arthropod communities are soil organic carbon (SOC), electrical conductivity (EC), total soil nitrogen (TN), and available nitrogen (AN). Our proposed research objectives and scientific hypotheses were verified: as degradation intensified, both the species diversity and population size of the arthropod community increased.

4.2. The Impact of Alpine Grassland Degradation on Soil Arthropod Communities

The degradation of alpine grasslands in arid regions has a profound impact on soil arthropod communities. The authors of several studies have highlighted that various groups of soil fauna in alpine grasslands exhibit distinct responses to varying levels of grazing intensity. Specifically, heavy grazing favors surface-dwelling arthropods, moderate grazing enhances the community structure and diversity of soil arthropods, and light grazing promotes the community structure and diversity of soil nematodes [39]. We arrived at similar conclusions, with our results indicating that the population size of soil arthropods in moderately and heavily degraded areas was greater compared to non-degraded and lightly degraded regions.

4.3. Changes in Soil Arthropod Communities During the Degradation of Alpine Grasslands

Research focusing on the characteristics of small soil arthropod communities in the alpine grasslands of northwestern Sichuan and their implications for grassland degradation has revealed that these communities’ composition, density, and diversity are acutely responsive to the alpine grassland ecosystem and are shaped by environmental factors, notably soil conditions. Furthermore, throughout the degradation process, there is a consistent decline in mite density [40]. This finding aligns with the results of the present study, which demonstrated that Pygmephoridae (dwarf bushy mites) were the predominant species in both the non-degraded area (ND) and mildly degraded area (LD). However, in the moderately degraded area (MD) and heavily degraded area (HD), mites were still present; however, their dominance had shifted to other taxa, such as Campodeidae and Formicidae [41]. This discrepancy primarily stems from variations in soil organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus content, and soil moisture across different degraded areas, which render the soils in the moderately degraded area (MD) and the heavily degraded rea (HD) unsuitable for mites [42]. The diversity of soil arthropods in the alpine grasslands of Kangma County, situated within the Chuhe River Basin, corroborates the results of these previous studies. The diversity and dominance indices of soil arthropods in this region exhibit a correlation with soil pH and soil moisture content. Furthermore, the number of soil arthropod taxa and individuals demonstrates a positive correlation with the mass ratio of rapidly available potassium [43]. However, owing to their larger size and greater adaptability, the majority of arthropods captured in the soils of these two regions are insectivorous in nature [44].

4.4. Discovery of Pioneer Species and Their Implications in the Process of Alpine Grassland Degradation

It is noteworthy that, in addition to the dominant species Pygmephoridae (dwarf bushy mites) and Microdispidae (microdiscrete mites), Campodeidae and Formicidae (ants) were identified in various degraded zones within this study. These species may potentially serve as key factors in the degradation process of the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland [45]. While Onychiuridae was observed in the lightly degraded (LD), moderately degraded (MD), and heavily degraded (HD) zones, with its population exhibiting a decreasing trend, it was notably absent in the non-degraded (ND) zone. This finding suggests that Onychiuridae may serve as an indicator or pioneer species in the degradation process of the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland [46].
The following study limitations must be acknowledged: (1) We failed to conduct an in-depth analysis of the ecological mechanisms (such as energy transfer and functional group interactions) through which soil carbon and nitrogen (SOC/TN/AN) drive the succession of arthropod communities. (2) We also failed to analyze the synergistic responses between microbial communities and arthropods. (3) The use of a single sampling period can only provide trends, making it difficult to determine long-term dynamic patterns. In future studies, long-term plots can be established along different degradation gradients to monitor the dynamics of biological communities and ecological resilience thresholds, and multi-season dynamic sampling can be employed to reduce temporal and quantitative biases in soil arthropod communities. In addition, research can be combined with stable isotope (δ13C/δ15N) and metagenomic technologies to quantify the contributions of key species (such as Formicidae and Collembola) to soil carbon and nitrogen turnover. Such measures will provide theoretical support for the sustainable management of soil biological resources in degraded grasslands.

5. Conclusions

In this study, a total of 342 soil arthropods were collected from the Bayinbuluk al-pine grassland, belonging to 4 orders, 11 families, and 24 genera. Based on their ecological distribution, they were classified into two dominant groups, six common groups, and sixteen rare groups, among which Acari (mites) were dominant. Soil organic matter (SOM), electrical conductivity (EC), total nitrogen (TN), and ammonium nitrogen (AN) were identified as key factors affecting the community structure of arthropods during grassland degradation. In addition, the identified keystone species and pioneer species are of great value for studying the degradation process of alpine grasslands in arid areas of Central Asia and warrant further in-depth exploration.

Author Contributions

Formal analysis, writing-original draft, writing—review & editing, T.K.; methodology, investigation, formal analysis, Y.H.; methodology, investigation, formal analysis, Y.J.; investigation, M.A.; investigation Y.T. and Z.Y.; methodology, writing—review and editing, H.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 31560171), Natural Science Foundation of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (2022D01A192) and Postgraduate Innovation Project of Xinjiang Agricultural University (No. XJAUGRI2025034).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our gratitude to Ren Qin, the Grassland Station in Hejing County, Bayingolin Mongolian Autonomous Prefecture, for his support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Division of degraded areas of alpine grassland and sampling areas.
Figure 1. Division of degraded areas of alpine grassland and sampling areas.
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Figure 2. Population changes of soil arthropods and distribution patterns of functional groups in different degradation zones of alpine grasslands. Note: (a) indicates the changes in the number of soil arthropods under different degradation degrees in the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland. (b) indicates the percentage of different functional groups of soil arthropods in the current degradation stage under different degradation degrees in the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland.
Figure 2. Population changes of soil arthropods and distribution patterns of functional groups in different degradation zones of alpine grasslands. Note: (a) indicates the changes in the number of soil arthropods under different degradation degrees in the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland. (b) indicates the percentage of different functional groups of soil arthropods in the current degradation stage under different degradation degrees in the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland.
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Figure 3. Distribution patterns of dominant soil arthropod species in different degradation zones of alpine grasslands.
Figure 3. Distribution patterns of dominant soil arthropod species in different degradation zones of alpine grasslands.
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Figure 4. Correlation between soil arthropod communities and soil chemical properties in different degraded areas of alpine grassland. Note: (a) indicates the correlation between the soil arthropod groups captured in the non-degraded area of the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland and the soil physical and chemical properties measured in this area. (b) indicates the correlation between the soil arthropod groups captured in the lightly degraded area of the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland and the soil physical and chemical properties measured in this area. (c) indicates the correlation between the soil arthropod groups captured in the moderately degraded area of the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland and the soil physical and chemical properties measured in this area. (d) indicates the correlation between the soil arthropod groups captured in the severely degraded area of the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland and the soil physical and chemical properties measured in this area.
Figure 4. Correlation between soil arthropod communities and soil chemical properties in different degraded areas of alpine grassland. Note: (a) indicates the correlation between the soil arthropod groups captured in the non-degraded area of the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland and the soil physical and chemical properties measured in this area. (b) indicates the correlation between the soil arthropod groups captured in the lightly degraded area of the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland and the soil physical and chemical properties measured in this area. (c) indicates the correlation between the soil arthropod groups captured in the moderately degraded area of the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland and the soil physical and chemical properties measured in this area. (d) indicates the correlation between the soil arthropod groups captured in the severely degraded area of the Bayinbuluk alpine grassland and the soil physical and chemical properties measured in this area.
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Figure 5. Redundancy analysis (RDA) of soil arthropod communities and soil chemical properties in different degraded areas of alpine grassland.
Figure 5. Redundancy analysis (RDA) of soil arthropod communities and soil chemical properties in different degraded areas of alpine grassland.
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Table 1. Community composition of soil arthropods in degraded alpine grassland sample zone in Bayinbuluk.
Table 1. Community composition of soil arthropods in degraded alpine grassland sample zone in Bayinbuluk.
ClassOrderFamilyNumberProportion (%)Functional Groups
ArachnidaPseudoscorpionesTridenchthoniidae30.88Pr
AcariforemesPygmephoridae16247.37Om
Angstidae20.58Pr
Microdispidae3610.53Sa
Erythraeidae30.88Pr
ParasiformesParasitidae195.56Pr
Laelapidae226.43Pr
Macrochelidae10.29Pr
CollembolaCollembolaOnychiuridae144.09Ph
Poduridae216.14Sa
DipluraDipluraCampodeidae195.56Sa
InsectaBlattopteraBlattidae10.29Sa
OrthoptrraAcridoidae20.58Ph
Terigoidea20.58Sa
ThysanopteraPhlaeothripidae30.88Om
DipteraMuscidae20.58Sa
HymenpteraFormicidae164.67Om
ColeopteraCarabidae30.88Pr
Lucanidae30.88Sa
Curculionidae10.29Ph
Tenebrionidae10.29Pr
Geotrupidae10.29Sa
Staphy30.88Pr
Pselaphidae20.58Pr
Table 2. Soil physical and chemical properties along the degradation transect in Bayinbuluk alpine grasslands.
Table 2. Soil physical and chemical properties along the degradation transect in Bayinbuluk alpine grasslands.
Alpine GrasslandpHEC
us/cm		BD
g/cm3		SOM
g/kg		TN
g/kg
ND8.02 ± 0.04 c913.22 ± 161.3 a0.65 ± 0.03 d79.42 ± 14.8 a3.33 ± 0.33 a
LD8.05 ± 0.03 c792.3 ± 133.62 a0.94 ± 0.03 c53.72 ± 6.11 b2.05 ± 0.21 b
MD8.19 ± 0.11 b424.38 ± 70.07 b1.52 ± 0.02 b15.12 ± 2.36 c0.97 ± 0.19 c
HD8.32 ± 0.06 a360.74 ± 26.79 c1.64 ± 0.04 a8.1 ± 2.12 c0.16 ± 0.05 d
Alpine GrasslandTP
g/kg		TK
g/kg		AN
mg/kg		AP
mg/kg		AK
mg/kg
ND0.77 ± 0.08 a7.17 ± 1.02 a146.58 ± 20.85 a27.4 ± 6.11 a162.2 ± 13.66 a
LD0.68 ± 0.05 b3.63 ± 0.76 b112.21 ± 28.5 b26.94 ± 6.28 a143.8 ± 22.37 a
MD0.52 ± 0.07 c1.78 ± 0.28 c65.45 ± 14.37 c28.32 ± 4.47 a119 ± 11.07 b
HD0.29 ± 0.04 d1.37 ± 0.25 c51.17 ± 6.47 c23.98 ± 1.67 a45.8 ± 3.03 c
Note: Different lowercase letters represent significant differences between groups for the same measurement, p < 0.05.
Table 3. Effects of alpine grassland degradation on ecological indices of soil arthropod communities.
Table 3. Effects of alpine grassland degradation on ecological indices of soil arthropod communities.
Alpine GrasslandH′JsDC
ND1.31 ± 0.14 a0.94 ± 0.10 a0.620.48 ± 0.79 a
LD1.28 ± 0.11 a0.92 ± 0.08 a0.600.41 ± 0.63 a
MD1.30 ± 0.08 a0.94 ± 0.06 a0.750.38 ± 0.52 a
HD1.32 ± 0.06 a0.96 ± 0.04 a1.080.34 ± 0.45 a
Note: Different lowercase letters represent significant differences between groups for the same measurement, p < 0.05.
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Kou, T.; Hu, Y.; Jia, Y.; Abulaizi, M.; Tian, Y.; Yang, Z.; Jia, H. Alterations in Soil Arthropod Communities During the Degradation of Bayinbuluk Alpine Grasslands in China Closely Related to Soil Carbon and Nitrogen. Land 2025, 14, 1478. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14071478

AMA Style

Kou T, Hu Y, Jia Y, Abulaizi M, Tian Y, Yang Z, Jia H. Alterations in Soil Arthropod Communities During the Degradation of Bayinbuluk Alpine Grasslands in China Closely Related to Soil Carbon and Nitrogen. Land. 2025; 14(7):1478. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14071478

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kou, Tianle, Yang Hu, Yuanbin Jia, Maidinuer Abulaizi, Yuxin Tian, Zailei Yang, and Hongtao Jia. 2025. "Alterations in Soil Arthropod Communities During the Degradation of Bayinbuluk Alpine Grasslands in China Closely Related to Soil Carbon and Nitrogen" Land 14, no. 7: 1478. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14071478

APA Style

Kou, T., Hu, Y., Jia, Y., Abulaizi, M., Tian, Y., Yang, Z., & Jia, H. (2025). Alterations in Soil Arthropod Communities During the Degradation of Bayinbuluk Alpine Grasslands in China Closely Related to Soil Carbon and Nitrogen. Land, 14(7), 1478. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14071478

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