Exploring Pedestrian Satisfaction and Environmental Consciousness in a Railway-Regenerated Linear Park

Abstract

This study employs Hannah Arendt’s (1958) the human condition as a philosophical framework to examine walking not merely as a physical activity but as a meaningful form of environmental consciousness. Homo faber, which denotes tool making, corresponds to the nature-based railway regeneration exemplified by the Gyeongui Line Forest Park in Seoul City, South Korea. By applying walking as a method, bifurcated themes are explored: a pedestrian-provision focus on walkability and an environmentally oriented focus consisting of nature and culture, supporting the notion that environmental elements are co-experienced through the embodied activity of walking. Thematic findings are supported by generalized additive models, grounded in a between-method triangulation attempt. The results confirm the interdependencies among the park’s environment, pedestrian satisfaction, and environmental consciousness. Specifically, the environment surrounding the park, which traverses natural and cultural elements, is strongly associated with both pedestrian satisfaction and environmental sensitivity. The research reifies walking as a fundamental human condition, encompassing labor, work, and action, while arguing for heuristic reciprocity between homo faber and nature, as well as framing walking as a sustainably meaningful urban intervention. This study contributes to maturing the theoretical understanding of walking as a vital human condition and suggests practical insights for pedestrian-centered spatial transformation.

1. Introduction

Nature-based urban renewal has emerged as a key theme in sustainable land use research [1,2]. At the heart of sustainability is the commitment to transmit well-being under favorable conditions to future generations, along with the promise of preserving choices regarding environmental resources [3]. Within this context, increasing attention is being paid to the role of human intervention in urban regeneration processes, particularly through forms of soft mobility that exert minimal environmental impact [4].

Walking, as a form of soft mobility, is inherently connected to sustainable urban practices. Drawing on Arendt’s [5] philosophy of the human condition, this study situates walking within the spectrum of labor, work, and action, offering a framework through which walking can be understood not merely as routine but as a meaningful urban practice [6,7,8]. Although Arendt initially integrated her philosophical argument in relation to political action, her ideas have since been applied to contemporary discourse addressing environmental crises and climate change [9,10,11]. Within this foundation, walking for commuting or leisure reflects labor [8]; nature-based urban regeneration represents work [1,2]; and walking with consciousness evokes action, which is an intentional and meaningful engagement with the environment [7].

Gyeongui Line Forest Park, the research site of this study, serves as an exemplary case of nature-based urban renewal. Originally a railroad connecting South and North Korea since 1906, it has been transformed into Seoul’s longest artificial linear park, spanning 6.3 km across the city. This space is now widely recognized as a model for converting industrial infrastructure into green public areas integrated into the surrounding urban fabric [12]. Although it is suggested that linear parks are particularly compatible with sustainable spatial design due to their potential to support environmental equity [4,13,14,15], few studies have addressed how these transformations relate to human activity during walking. This study responds by incorporating Arendt’s concept of homo faber to analyze the symbolic processes and consequences of pedestrian-centered urban regeneration. Walking is an environmentally sustainable activity and a potential expression of vita activa, a life rooted in meaningful action [6,7].

Methodologically, walking is adopted as a research method, emphasizing it as an essential mode of knowledge production that represents the embodied, sensory, and affective dimensions of urban surroundings [16,17]. This study qualitatively analyzes user-generated video content captured while walking through the park [18,19,20]. Furthermore, the findings are assessed using survey analysis within a between-method triangulation approach [21,22] to better understand the connections between the park’s surrounding elements, walking experiences, and environmental sensitivity.

The aim of this study is to examine how walking, as both an embodied practice and methodological lens, contributes to the understanding of environmental sensitivity and pedestrian satisfaction in a railway-regenerated linear park. Ultimately, this study argues that Arendt’s [5] philosophy can illuminate the heuristic reciprocity between human creativity and the natural world—referred to here as the relationship between homo faber and nature. Beyond its philosophical framing, the research positions walking as a legitimate method of inquiry, generating knowledge through embodied engagement. Using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods, this study answers two key research questions:

RQ1: What environmental assets contribute to walking experiences in pedestrian-centered urban renewal areas?

RQ2: Does pedestrian satisfaction mediate environmental sensitivity in this particular type of urban space?

2. Literature Review

In this section, previous studies that contemplated walking as an essential human activity, as well as those focused on nature-based urban renewal, are discussed to explore the integration of a pedestrian-friendly environment within a railway-converted urban linear park.

2.1. Walking as a Human Condition

Arendt ([5], pp. 7–11) identified three essential human activities: labor, work, and action. Labor refers to the biological processes essential for sustaining life and is closely linked to the cyclical and repetitive needs of the body. Work denotes the human activity of fabricating an artificial world and producing durable objects that separate humans from their natural state. Action is associated with human plurality and the political realm, emphasizing interaction, speech, and collective engagement.

While all three constitute fundamental aspects of the human condition, Arendt associated action (praxis) with living a life oriented toward the highest good. Through action, individuals reveal their thoughts in the public realm, engaging in vita activa—an active life intertwined with responsibility. Arendt’s philosophical framework has since been adopted across a wide range of academic disciplines, particularly in light of increasing awareness of environmental crises and the post-growth momentum under the broader umbrella of sustainability [9,10,11].

From this philosophical standpoint, walking can be interpreted as labor in its function of sustaining daily life through commuting or leisure [8], work when it involves the creation of walking-related infrastructure or the transformation of space into walkable environments [1,2,6], and action when it incorporates a lifestyle that actively pursues the ethical and collective good of sustainability [16]. In particular, the perception of walking as a lifestyle cannot be separated from its philosophical articulation, from ancient literature that regarded walking as a harmony between the mind (or intellectuality) and body [7], to contemporary attention to walking as a consciously chosen mode of locomotion that promotes well-being and reduces environmental impact [19].

Previous studies on walking have focused on its physical and environmental benefits, including travel satisfaction [23], psychological restoration [24], user perceptions of pedestrian-oriented urban environments [1,2], and its role in promoting low-impact transportation for sustainable urban development [25,26,27,28]. Although walking is recognized as a critical asset in approaching sustainability goals, studies examining it through a philosophical lens are scarce. Therefore, this study proposes that walking can be understood as a form of action within the framework of vita activa.

2.2. Homo Faber

Homo faber refers to human beings as tool makers, particularly in connection with work as one of the fundamental activities in the human condition. While work enables the construction of a durable world through the creation of artifacts, Arendt [5] criticized the utilitarian aspect of work for its potential to become confined within an endless chain of means and ends, where each end merely serves as another means. Thus, she emphasized the meaningfulness of work when the fabrication process allows the means to determine the end itself (pp. 153–159). In the present study, nature-based and walking-centered urban regeneration is examined as the work of homo faber, an activity that shapes urban conditions aligned with sustainable values and realized in their current form without requiring further transformation.

Railways, once symbols of the fossil fuel-driven industrial revolution, have increasingly been replaced by more energy-efficient and environmentally friendly modes of transportation. Consequently, recent research has proposed converting disused rail corridors into tools for sustainable urban development [4,13,14,15]. Modesto et al. [4] evaluated the landscape elements of an abandoned historic railway stretching 12 km, which once connected inland and coastal regions and now serves as part of an ecological network for habitats and birdlife. In addition to assessing its suitability for natural conservation, they also considered cultural–historical and visual–aesthetic values, identifying five levels of suitability for future development as pedestrian paths. Using geospatial data, their study proposed specific locations for revitalization, although mostly functioning as recreational greenways rather than urban-integrated corridors.

While recent studies have highlighted the role of urban renewal in achieving sustainable development by fostering pedestrian-friendly environments, few have explored walking as an action capable of generating environmental awareness and ecological engagement. Most existing research presents nature-based solutions as external resources that offer psychological, physical, social, and environmental benefits to residents, particularly in densely populated urban settings [29]. However, theoretical perspectives such as new materialism [30] and ecocriticism [31] reframe nature as an active agent with an intrinsic value equal to that of human beings. Drawing upon this lens, this study regards regenerated urban spaces as valuable entities, equivalent to nature itself, mediated through the meaningfulness of walking.

2.3. Walking in Urban Nature

Arendt’s philosophical concept of vita activa emphasizes a life rooted in action, wherein deeds are imbued with thought (pp. 294–304). Originally articulated in the context of political life and human plurality in the late 1950s, this notion has since demonstrated its potential to encompass ecological concerns and environmental narratives, especially those that inspire active public engagement [9,11,32]. In this sense, the present study explores walking as a form of vita activa, particularly within nature-based urban renewal settings.

In contemporary critique, nature is increasingly regarded as the ultimate good, standing in concrete contrast to the utilitarian values of the modern industrial world. Much of the existing literature highlights the beneficial effects of nature on human well-being, such as psychological restoration [24,26] and health enhancement [33], often framing sustainability as the preservation of natural resources for the sake of human beings [3]. However, such frameworks frequently reinforce Cartesian dualism, positioning nature as separate from human development and scientific rationality and contributing to the deterioration of environmental crises.

Arendt, by contrast, recognized the development of science not only as a tool of control but also as a domain in which human introspection can be biologically grounded. Her concept of metabolism acknowledges the essential interdependence between humans and nature, reframing introspection not as an isolated mental act but as something embedded in bodily processes (p. 312). Thus, although Arendt’s notion of action was primarily political, her acknowledgment of biological embeddedness now creates a conceptual domain for reinterpreting action in relation to nature. Walking, the most fundamental form of human mobility, becomes an embodied expression of this renewed human–nature relationship. When walking is attuned to natural rhythms, such as seasonal transitions, plant life, or sunlight, it resists the car-centric mobility patterns of modern life, thereby echoing Arendt’s critique of modernity’s obsession with speed, efficiency, and control [34,35].

2.4. Gyeongui Line Forest Park: A Repurposed Railway

Gyeongui Line Forest Park, the research site of this study, is a linear park stretching 6.3 km across the Yongsan and Mapo Districts in Seoul, with a width ranging from 10 to 60 m depending on its connection to urban structure (Figure 1). The park was constructed between 2011 and 2018 on vacant land made available after the Gyeongui railway was relocated underground in 2005. The Gyeongui railway, which began operation in 1906, originally connected Seoul to Sinuiju (now in North Korea), serving as a major transportation link between the South and North. According to the Seoul Metropolitan Government [12], 45% of park users visit for walking and relaxation, and the overall satisfaction level is 4.2 out of 5. Notably, 60% of the surveyed citizens reported visiting the park at least once a week.

Since its renewal, a range of academic studies predominantly published in Korean have examined the park from an urban regeneration perspective. These include typological urban analysis [36], its dynamic social impacts on the local community [37,38], design elements, and user satisfaction [39,40]. However, research on walking in the park remains limited, despite its design as a linear green space that promotes pedestrian use over static recreation. Furthermore, the park’s possible contribution to fostering ecological sensitivity among urban residents has yet to be explored.

3. Methodology

3.1. Walking as a Method

This study adopted walking as a method to investigate the spatial and experiential dimensions of Gyeongui Line Forest Park by analyzing user-generated YouTube videos. Grounded in previous research [16,18,19,20], walking as a method recognizes walking not merely as a topic of study (e.g., walkability), but as an essential mode of knowledge production that captures the embodied, sensory, and affective dimensions of urban environments [17]. While walking in landscape architecture is often employed as a design-thinking process to anticipate spatial futures, this study adopts walking as an evaluative method to understand how existing spatial interventions are perceived and internalized by users. Applying this perspective enabled the present study to interpret walking as an engagement with urban spaces and environmental sensibility.

To frame this analysis, the categories of Arendt’s [5] threefold division of human activity—labor, work, and action—were applied not as abstract categories but as interpretive tools for understanding different dimensions of the pedestrian experience. Labor is understood as the manual and bodily effort involved in walking, particularly in contrast to driving or mechanized short-distance travel. It reflects the repetitive and daily nature of pedestrian movement. Work is interpreted as the transformation of urban materiality, referring to how urban regeneration shapes and fabricates a walkable environment, work undertaken by both planners and users. Action is linked to the pedestrian’s lifestyle choices and environmental consciousness, emerging through intentional engagement with space. It represents the act of walking as a meaningful urban practice that supports sustainability and civic participation. These three dimensions are not only philosophical but are grounded in the lived spatial narratives revealed through the walking videos. They frame how we interpret both the physical environment and the behaviors observed.

The primary methodological approach was content analysis of YouTube videos recorded while walking through the park. By examining visual and narrative elements, this study attempted to uncover thematic and place-based meanings emerging from the embodied experience of walking. As YouTube videos are cultural artifacts reflecting the collective understanding and representation of a destination, a dimension of digital ethnography was also considered by positioning the walking videos as both empirical data and social texts. This idea is supported by Urquijo’s research [41], arguing that walking ethnography is a method for accessing polyphonic urban experiences.

To enhance the robustness of the findings of the qualitative content analysis, this study employed methodological triangulation using survey data through a Generalized Additive Model (GAM)-based analytical framework [22]. Content analysis explored the thematic dimensions presented in user-generated content, whereas GAMs statistically examined the relationships between users’ perceptions of the park’s pedestrian-friendly environment and their environmental perceptions in relation to sustainable engagement as a lifestyle.

By combining walking-based video content analysis with survey-based statistical modeling, this study advances a methodological framework that explores behavioral insights. It contributes to broader approaches for integrating experiential methods into sustainability research and urban studies [16], exemplifying walking not merely as a passive observation but also as a generative act of knowledge production, environmental awareness, and civic engagement.

In this study, walking is employed as a method not for design or predictive modeling but as a way of accessing lived spatial narratives. By analyzing user-generated walking videos, the research explores how walking facilitates environmental awareness, connects users to the history and ecology of the place, and reveals the sensory and affective dimensions of the linear park experience.

3.2. YouTube Videos

Four YouTube videos were selected for thematic content analysis to facilitate the contextual interpretation of digital data and enable in-depth qualitative understanding [42,43]. Data collection continued until thematic saturation was reached, during which time recurring patterns were observed and no new themes emerged. Given that South Korea’s four distinct seasons significantly influence outdoor leisure behaviors, the selected videos represent different seasons. Only videos without facial recognition in the narration were included to maintain the anonymity of the content creators, except for Video 1, which was produced by the Seoul Metropolitan Government.

Fazeli et al. [44] proposed a framework for identifying thematic patterns in visual–verbal data using five elements: general characteristics, visual characteristics, character messages, character traits, and multimodal features. Because this study focuses on the lived experiences of anonymous content creators, character traits were excluded from the analysis, while the other four elements were incorporated. The analysis process involved collecting and organizing data, transcribing both visual and verbal content, extracting coded themes, interpreting the themes, and developing survey items based on the coded themes to support triangulation through subsequent survey analysis.

Video 1, which was recorded by the Seoul Metropolitan Government in April 2022, features a conversation between the city’s greenspace policy director and a professor of architecture as they walk through the park. Video 2 was recorded on a summer Sunday in 2022 and lasted for approximately 50 min, providing a diverse portrayal of the pedestrian environment. Video 3, which was captured in November 2022 during late autumn, highlights the park’s natural environmental assets through knowledge-based narration. Video 4, filmed in the winter of 2021, shows relatively fewer visitors to the park than the other videos. Both visual and verbal data were analyzed with a bifurcated focus on pedestrian sources and the surrounding environment, including the natural and historical–cultural elements of the site. Coded themes and their interpretations are presented in the Results section.

3.3. Generalized Additive Models (GAMs)

Methodological triangulation was employed to ensure the validity, reliability, and legitimacy of this study. A survey was conducted to support the thematic findings from the YouTube content analysis, and GAMs were used for data analysis.

Considering that the model included self-reported psychological measures and potential confounding variables, a flexible modeling framework (GAMs) was adopted to account for possible nonlinear and complex relationships. GAMs are ideal for conducting exploratory data analysis or visualizing effects over a continuous variable, such as how pedestrian satisfaction increases and the tipping point where the environmental sensitivity level introverts [45]. It is well suited for prediction, especially with real-world data, showing how and where a variable impacts the outcome through smooth plots.

The Likert Scale is technically ordinal, which means that the intervals between points are not necessarily equal. However, in line with common practice in social science research, ordinary responses were treated as quasi-interval data for modeling purposes [46]. Potential nonlinearity was tested using thin-plate regression splines as smoothing functions. This approach allows the model to flexibly estimate nonparametric relationships without assuming a specific functional form and knot locations, as the model tests the findings from qualitative thematic analysis and needs to find an optimal solution that balances the fidelity of the data and the smoothness of the function [45,47,48].

By applying GAMs, the survey analysis aims to capture nonlinear trends in the data while improving the model’s predictive accuracy. Smooth functions were estimated by minimizing the penalized sum of the squared residuals, which balanced the goodness of fit with smoothness to prevent overfitting. All data analyses were performed using R (Version 4.0.5) [49] and GAMs were estimated using the mgcv package [45,48].

4. Results

4.1. Themes of Walking Videos

Based on the visual and verbal content of the qualitative dataset, the key features of the walking experience comprise bifurcated themes: pedestrian-focused and surrounding environmental assets, each reflecting various coded themes (

Table 1. YouTube videos of walking in the Gyeongui Line Forest Park.

	Description	Visual and Verbal Content	Coded Themes	Researcher’s Interpretation
Video 1	Duration: 9:51 Date: May/11/2022 Verbal data source: Conversation Language: Korean	Visual content: -Walking: cement concrete pavement -Surrounding: greenery, 4-5 story houses, cafés, and restaurants Verbal content: I like this place because of the abundance of cafés and restaurants nearby (2:00). Transforming this area into a linear park has been the most effective approach for urban regeneration (3:00). The park continues to improve naturally over time without direct intervention as the trees mature and the landscape evolves (3:50). There are two major advantages of a linear park: First, unlike square parks, linear parks maximize interface with adjacent residential catchment. Second, they enhance social cohesion by dissolving physical and symbolic boundaries between neighborhoods (4:50). Architectural diversity is observed in relation to the varying tree heights and the spatial width of the greenspace (8:40).	F&B amenities. Architectural diversity. Accessibility. Social cohesion.	The linear park is described as an optimal model for urban regeneration, as it maximizes accessibility and fosters a sense of community. However, the emphasis of the linear park’s beneficial effects is predominantly on human beings.
Video 2	Duration: 39:52 Date: August/28/2022 Verbal data source: Text narration Language: English	Visual content: -Walking: cement concrete pavement, crushed stone pavement, Sogang Sky Bridge made of wooden planks, bicycle parking facilities, sunshades and benches, disruption of greenspace continuity due to vehicular roads and intersection -Surrounding: greenery, streams and ponds, blue sky, sculptures referencing railroad history and book alley, railroad tracks, high-rise buildings and underdeveloped housing, cafes and restaurants, international tourists, passers-by of all ages—seniors, youth, infants in strollers, elderly women conversing in the pavilion, individuals resting near the pond, and children playing in the area Verbal content: I think this section of the railroad is the most popular among both children and adults (20:49). It’s heartwarming to see birds drinking water here (20:12). It’s wonderful that people can not only view but also touch the water nearby (37:11).	Historic features from the former railway. Abundant natural assets, especially water and small animals. Generational integration from infants to the elderly.	The linear park offers varied walking experiences through changing pavement types, such as crushed stone and plaza areas. Walking videos capture the integration of natural and built environments, reflecting a harmonious respect for ecological elements and vibrant urban experiences.
Video 3	Duration: 9:51 Date: November/06/2022 Verbal data source: Audio narration Language: Korean	Visual content: -Walking: cement concrete pavement, crushed stone pavement, plaza, benches and pavilion, disruption of greenspace continuity due to vehicular roads, intersections, and apartment complex parking lots -Surrounding: dense tree canopy, red maple trees (Quercus rubra), water channels, railroad tracks and historical sculpture Verbal content: Walking one or two subway stops along this path allows for both light exercise and enjoyment of nature (1:28). As a linear park, it is ideal for strolling (2:56). A linear park can serve as an ecological corridor, providing habitats for flora and fauna and offering ecosystem services for other species (2:45). Since this area repurposed an abandoned railway, its development did not cause displacement of residents (3:26). The forest offers immeasurable psychological and environmental benefits to humans (3:42). It is hoped that the fragmented green corridor will be improved in the future through the installation of a green highway (3:53). With the integration of railway tracks, water channels, sculptures, and red maple trees, the landscape evokes a sense of exotic scenery (5:09). The inclusion of plaza-like open spaces creates spatial variety (5:35). Further improvement in the connectivity of green spaces is desired (6:35).	Ecosystem services. Equitable urban regeneration. Exotic walking ambiance. Physical engagement and health improvement. Cultural significance rooted in the site’s historical legacy.	A linear park provides valuable ecosystem services by supporting biodiversity and facilitating natural processes within the urban context. Through its diverse spatial experiences and scenic elements, the park offers a unique and exotic walking environment. The video emphasizes the importance of ecosystem services and advocates for improved continuity of greenspace.
Video 4	Duration: 10:29 Date: January/04/2021 Verbal data source: Text narration Language: Korean	Visual content: -Walking: cement concrete pavement -Surrounding: non-green vegetated areas such as reed fields, a mix of built environments, including apartment complexes, multi-unit dwellings, undeveloped single-story houses, and clusters of high-rise buildings, railroad-themed sculptures, small independent bookstores, Hangeul-inspired public art installation Verbal content: This is a park well-suited for a two-hour walk. When trains were still running, the sound of bells signaled their approach, which led to the nickname “Ttaeng-Ttaeng Street” (6:30).	Suitable environment for hours of walking. Cultural significance rooted in the site’s historical legacy.	In winter, the park appears visually barren, with natural elements significantly diminished.

Note: Video 1: https://youtu.be/vbWQNQjMw1s (accessed on 15 April 2025); Video 2: https://youtu.be/cQXfWMDIn-k (accessed on 15 April 2025); Video 3: https://youtu.be/SAxafYkXzYs (accessed on 15 April 2025); Video 4: https://youtu.be/QCJBQ9 × 8yCA (accessed on 15 April 2025).

).

Pedestrian-Provision Focus: Accessibility, Connectivity, Engagement, and Amenities

Accessibility emerged as the dominant theme of the linear park experience, as it maximized contact areas with adjacent community residents and was connected to various subway stops. Connectivity was also a frequently mentioned theme, as the visual and verbal content conveyed the fragmentation of routes by vehicular roads and intersections and one proposed installing a highway to connect the two unconnected parts of the park (Video 3, 2:56). Different pavement materials and changes in path width and shape—including the emergence of plazas along walkways—enhanced the walking experience as the linear park enriched the lived experience of walking. The visual content from Video 2 captured these differences: some parts were paved with concrete, others with crushed stone resembling European pebblestone footpaths, and some were adjacent to plazas, providing different environmental experiences. The last theme, amenities, included service facilities such as benches, canopies, and bicycle storage. These were presented through visual scenes across all videos, which showed both passersby and others resting on benches. In Video 3, several scenes showed pedestrians resting by the water or in the pavilion.

Surrounding Environment Focus: Nature, Culture, and Generational Inclusivity

Although the videos mainly conveyed the lived experience of walking in the park, the content showed the surrounding environment, featuring primarily natural elements such as greenery, sky, water, and small animals, as well as non-natural features, including the site’s historical identity as a former railway track, as well as cultural aspects such as symbolic sculptures and artistic installations. Notably, all videos showed pedestrians of various age groups, ranging from infants in strollers to elderly individuals. The narrations consistently emphasized the park’s abundant opportunities for contact with nature (Video 1, 3:50; Video 2, 37:11; Video 3, 3:42) and its historical background as a railway track (Video 2, 20:49; Video 3, 2:45; Video 4, 6:30). Beyond its historical value, cultural assets related to sculptures, book streets, cafés, and restaurants were also highlighted. In summary, the walking experience in this railway-regenerated linear park was shaped by both its natural surroundings and cultural elements.

4.2. GAMs for Statistical Triangulation

4.2.1. Description of GAM Models

A site-specific online survey was conducted from 1 May to 20 May 2025, yielding 184 valid samples from individuals who visited the research site regularly (more than once a week). The survey included 13 items on the park environment, pedestrian satisfaction, and environmental sensitivity, measured using a 5-point Likert scale (

Table A1. Survey questionnaire.

Construct	Parameters	Items (5-Point Likert Scale)
Predictors	Pedestrian provision	Accessibility	Park has good accessibility.
		Connectivity	Park has good connectivity of walking paths.
		Path variety	The walking paths are composed of various materials and forms.
		Rest facility	The walking paths are equipped with rest facilities such as benches and shade canopies.
	Surrounding environment	Green nature	Park exposes visitors to green natural elements such as trees, grass, and lawns.
		Water element	Park exposes visitors to natural water elements such as streams and ponds.
		Habitat conservation	Park functions as a habitat for small animals and insects.
		History display	Park preserves and exhibits the history of the Gyeongui Line.
		Art element	Park provides exposure to artistic elements such as sculptures.
		F&B access	Park offers access to various cafés and restaurants.
		Age inclusiveness	Park allows people of various age groups to enjoy it together.
Mediation	Pedestrian satisfaction		Park provides a pedestrian-friendly environment.
Response	Environmental sensitivity		Walking experiences in Gyeongui Line Forest Park help restore environmental sensitivity.

). Demographic information included gender (male: 109; female: 75) and age groups (10s: 33; 20s: 54; 30s: 46; 40s: 42; over 50s: 9). A statistical approach was applied primarily to support thematic findings from “walking as a method.”

To ensure the validity of non-linear estimation in the GAM framework, this study followed Wood’s [45] recommendation of securing at least 10–20 observations per effective degree of freedom (edf). The smooth term for the surrounding environment in Model 1 yielded an edf of 2.23, indicating that approximately 22 to 45 observations would be sufficient to estimate this effect reliably. Model 3, which included the most complex structure, used three smooth terms: pedestrian provision, surrounding environment, and pedestrian satisfaction. Accordingly, a sample size of 184 observations comfortably exceeds the recommended threshold. The online survey remained open until the target number of responses was reached to ensure the minimum requirement for model stability was met. Furthermore, the use of thin-plate regression splines and penalization techniques within the GAM framework helps prevent overfitting and ensures stable estimation, even with moderate sample sizes.

Four variables were included in the analysis: pedestrian provision, surrounding environment, pedestrian satisfaction, and environmental sensitivity. Pedestrian provision was measured using four items: accessibility, connectivity, path variety, and rest facilities. The surrounding environment was assessed using seven indicators: green nature, water elements, habitat function, historical display, artistic elements, café access, and age inclusiveness. Pedestrian provision and the surrounding environment were tested as predictors, while environmental sensitivity served as the response variable, and pedestrian satisfaction functioned as the mediator.

Cronbach’s alpha scores of 0.92 for pedestrian provision and 0.96 for the surrounding environment confirmed the internal consistency of the predictive parameters and supported the conceptual bifurcation of the park environment into pedestrian provision-focused and surrounding environment-focused attributes. Three GAM models were tested (

Table A2. GAM models with model specifications.

Model 1	Description	Predicting PE from PP and PE
	Structure	PSi = β0 + f1(PPi) + f2(SEi) + εi (1)
Model 2	Description	Predicting total effect of PP and SE on ES
	Structure	ESi = β0 + f3(PPi) + f4(SEi) + εi (2)
Model 3	Description	Mediation role of PS by including it as an additional smooth term
	Structure	ESi = β0 + f5(PPi) + f6(SEi) + f7(PSi) + εi (3)
PPi: Pedestrian provision score SEi: Surrounding environment score PSi: Pedestrian satisfaction ESi: Environmental sensitivity fk (·): Smooth function (thin-plate spline) εi (k): Residual variance not captured by the model’s smooth terms

). Model 1 examined the causal effect of the environmental score on walking satisfaction, Model 2 tested the total effect of the environmental score on environmental sensitivity, and Model 3 evaluated the mediating effect of walking satisfaction on the relationship between the environmental score and environmental sensitivity.

4.2.2. Comparison of GAMs

Three GAMs were estimated to examine the relationship between park environmental factors, pedestrian satisfaction, and sensitivity (

Table 2. Model performance of GAMs.

Models	Parametric Terms	Smooth Terms (Applying Thin-Plate Splines)
	GAM Coefficient	Terms	edf	F	p-Value
Model 1: Predictors to mediator	Intercept: 3.26 Deviation explained: 66.1%	Pedestrian provision	1.00	0.09	0.77
		Surrounding environment	2.23	52.13	<0.001
Model 2: Predictors to total effect	Intercept: 3.77 Deviation explained: 64%	Pedestrian provision	1	0.19	0.89
		Surrounding environment	1	127.99	<0.001
Model 3: Predictors to total effect with mediation	Intercept: 3.77 Deviation explained: 70.2%	Pedestrian provision	1	0.07	0.80
		Surrounding environment	1	26.76	<0.001
		Pedestrian satisfaction	1	32.24	<0.001

). Thin-plate splines were applied to allow for the nonlinear smoothing of predictors. Across all models, the surrounding environment scores consistently demonstrated a curvilinear and significantly positive association, characterizing its robust contribution to both pedestrian friendliness through satisfaction and environmental sensitivity. By contrast, the pedestrian provision scores displayed nearly flat lines, indicating a negligible association. The inclusion of pedestrian satisfaction in Model 3 contributed to explaining additional variance in sensitivity, further validating the mediation structure.

Model 1 tested the effects of pedestrian provision and surrounding environment on pedestrian satisfaction. The model explained 66.1% of the deviance, with a significant intercept estimate of 3.26. The smoothing term for the surrounding environment score showed a strong and significant nonlinear effect (edf = 2.23, F = 52.13, p < 0.001), characterized by a steadily increasing curve (Table 2; Figure 2). In contrast, the pedestrian provision score was not a significant predictor (F = 0.09, p = 0.77), indicating a flat and non-influential relationship.

Model 2 examined the direct effect of the same predictors on environmental sensitivity (total effect). The model explained 64% of the deviance and revealed that the surrounding environment score retained a significant effect (edf = 1, F = 127.99, p < 0.001), again exhibiting a steep, positive relationship (Table 2; Figure 3). However, the pedestrian provision score remained non-significant (F = 0.19, p = 0.89), consistent with Model 1.

Model 3 incorporated pedestrian satisfaction as a mediator to assess its additional contribution to environmental sensitivity. This model achieved the highest explanatory power, with 70.2% deviance explained. Both the surrounding environment score (F = 26.76, p < 0.001) and pedestrian satisfaction (F = 32.24, p < 0.001) exhibited significant nonlinear effects, suggesting partial mediation. The pedestrian provision score remained non-significant (F = 0.07, p = 0.80), confirming its minimal influence across all three models (Table 2; Figure 4).

4.3. Summary of Results

The qualitative analysis revealed that walking experience in the regenerated linear park was shaped by two main themes: pedestrian-focused features and surrounding environmental elements. While pedestrian infrastructure supported functional engagement, it was the environmental context that stood out visually and narratively. Additionally, the GAM results confirmed that the surrounding environment scores had a strong and significant nonlinear effect on both pedestrian satisfaction and environmental sensitivity, whereas pedestrian provision scores were not significant across models. These findings suggest that environmental quality, rather than physical infrastructure, plays a pivotal role in enhancing walkers’ psychological and sensory experiences.

5. Discussion

This study analyzes walking as an ecologically meaningful urban practice through the lens of Arendt’s [5] The Human Condition, which advocates for a life of action, thought, and vita activa. Two methodological approaches reveal that nature- and pedestrian-centered urban regeneration reify the heuristic reciprocity between homo faber and nature, mediated by walking. Environmental aspects that encompass natural and cultural assets, alongside pedestrian-focused elements, show a strong integrated relationship, supporting the concept of walking as a form of place-making exemplified by the flâneur [6,7,8].

The study confirms that urban residents walk regularly in the park for commuting and leisure purposes. In contrast to instrumental urbanism’s emphasis on efficient mobility and the devaluation of physical labor, urban residents choose walking as a deliberate act of slowness [50]. Especially in Seoul, a densely populated urban setting, walking is often perceived as an inferior mode of mobility, as depicted in the film “Parasite,” which repeatedly highlights the contrast in transportation options between different social strata. However, this study shows that walking as labor reaffirms the value of an active life through place-making, echoing the idea that the reward of labor is life itself [10] p. 112.

Transforming former railway tracks into pedestrian-friendly parks represents a moderate level of urban regeneration compared to the creation of smart cities powered by renewable energy sources [51]. Both approaches demonstrate how our tool-making capacity as homo faber contributes to sustainable development. However, as this study explores, the human ecological subject emerges as a biophilic entity that does not merely exist in the built environment but actively seeks and cultivates connections with natural elements embedded in the urban fabric. Thus, walking becomes a biophilic expression of ecological attunement [6]. Similarly, this study argues that nature-based urban regeneration offers a sustainable means of fostering ecological connectivity between humans as tool makers and their environments.

When walking is contemplated in urbanized settings, de Certeau [52] claimed that it enables one’s autonomy from collective forces through phatic topoi (p. 99), allowing individuals to generate meaningful situations. User-generated content shows that various spatial sources were recorded alongside natural elements—traversing historical legacies, railways, sculptures, cafés, restaurants, and adjacent concrete constructions such as high-rise buildings and residential units. Quantitative survey data also confirm that the park’s natural and cultural surroundings, rather than its walking infrastructure, are strongly associated with both pedestrian satisfaction and environmental sensitivity.

The categorization of environmental assets into distinct themes, as green nature, water elements, habitat functions, historical traces, and cultural features, reflects a structured synthesis of the surrounding environmental factors. However, the distinct contribution of using walking as a research method lies in its ability to reveal these environmental elements as co-experienced and incorporated. Unlike survey-only approaches, walking allows the researcher to engage directly with the physical environment and capture the lived, sensory-based, and narrative dimensions of spatial perception. This methodological approach enabled the identification of nuanced environmental affordances that may not be readily captured through observational checklists or questionnaires alone.

Sustainability is achievable through both anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric attributes [53]. Findings from walking in the Gyeongui Line Forest Park demonstrate that both types of environments similarly affect pedestrian satisfaction, showing that tool-making humans continuously create meaningful relationships as both biophilic entities and cultural communicators. Unfortunately, although social cohesion across generations through walking has been shown to be an important anthropocentric attribute, video recordings rarely captured the presence of older adults or individuals using wheelchairs. Promoting the use of linear parks requires more inclusive narratives around walking in nature, especially for urban residents in need of care.

Walking in the park has already been recognized as a distinct form of urban walking, since its natural features, along with park infrastructure, provide measurable differences in outcomes such as physical activity levels [54]. This study focuses its analytical lens on sustainable lifestyles in this context, within the philosophical framework of essential human conditions arising from the tension between material limitations in today’s urban environment and human aspirations. Enjoyment derived from flow experiences is aligned with less environmentally impactful leisure activities [55]. Walking, inseparable from labor in a way that reduces environmental impact, can bring a sense of enjoyment to this support, especially when it is integrated into urban regeneration strategies.

“Gil (길),” meaning path or road in Korean, was emphasized in nature using the rhetoric of well-being in South Korea. It has since become associated with forest leisure resources and welfare initiatives [56]. Although previous discussions on walking have emphasized inclusive forest management [57], this study extends the discussion by proposing that walking in nature is also a form of vita activa—a consciously chosen, sustainable lifestyle. Seoul is now developing more green spaces under the slogan of “Garden City Seoul,” with 1,007 locations planned across the city by 2026 [58]. Moreover, several pedestrian-friendly projects, such as Seoullo 7017 and Seoul Dulle-gil, are being promoted [2]. Similarly, this study supports the connection between green spaces to form more continuous linear walkways throughout the city.

Although this study provides an opportunity to consider pedestrian-centered urban regeneration and walking as expressions of the essential human condition—labor, work, and action—and suggests philosophical implications, it carries some limitations. First, Gyeongui Line Forest Park comprises multiple sections, each with varying levels of tree maturity, green coverage, and architectural themes. However, this study treats the entire space as a linear park. Second, the quantitative data lacks an assessment of duration of stay or time of visit, both of which could substantially affect the perceived walking experience within the area. Finally, it remains preliminary to distinguish between the attributes of pedestrian provision and environmental surroundings, although they can be considered separately in demonstrating pedestrian friendliness and environmental sensitivity.

Future research can build upon this study to address its current limitations. The spatial heterogeneity of the study can be more accurately represented through sectional and temporal analysis that reveal ecological, architectural, and experiential variations along its 6.3 km corridor. Moreover, a longitudinal analysis would help distinguish between utilitarian and leisure-based pedestrian flows. Lastly, applying the study’s findings to comparable urban settings in other Asian cities will enhance the study’s contextual validity and generalizability.

6. Conclusions

This study addresses two research questions concerning walking as a fundamental human condition encompassing labor, work, and action, using the case of a railway-regenerated linear park in a densely populated Asian capital. First, walking infrastructure—including accessibility, connectivity, path variety, and rest facilities—and surrounding environmental features—such as green spaces, water elements, habitat conservation, historical displays, artistic elements, F&B access, and age inclusiveness—contribute to walking experiences in pedestrian-centered urban renewal destinations. In particular, the surrounding environment is significantly associated with both walkability and environmental consciousness. Second, pedestrian walking satisfaction partially mediates the relationship between the park’s surrounding environment and environmental sensitivity. By applying Arendt’s [5] concept of the human condition and employing a methodological approach that frames walking as a method, this study argues that walking is an essential aspect of human existence. It advances the theoretical understanding of walking and offers practical insights into pedestrian-centered spatial transformation. Furthermore, the findings support promoting walking as a consciously selected mode of urban mobility rooted in environmental sensitivity.