Intervention and Co-Creation: Art-Led Transformation of Spatial Practices and Cultural Values in Rural Public Spaces

Abstract

Amid the accelerating processes of modernization and commercialization, traditional rural public spaces are increasingly losing their cultural value and social functions. This study investigates the transformative role of art intervention in enhancing the quality and cultural significance of rural public spaces, with a focus on Machang Village in Tengchong, China. The study first develops a conceptual model to explore the causal relationships and pathways between these influencing factors. Drawing on this framework, the research then uses Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to empirically test a multi-dimensional resident satisfaction model that incorporates spatial aesthetics, functional suitability, historical-cultural identity, and emotional cognition. Through field surveys and data collected from 224 residents, the study reveals that cultural emotions and functional completeness are the most influential factors in driving overall satisfaction. Artistic innovation and aesthetics contribute moderately, indicating that visual creativity alone is insufficient without deeper cultural integration and functional coherence. The findings suggest a dual-pathway satisfaction mechanism, where both symbolic emotional resonance and practical usability shape residents’ perceptions of public space quality. The study offers theoretical and practical insights into optimizing rural public space design, advocating for art-led, community-engaged, and culturally embedded approaches to rural revitalization.

1. Introduction

With the accelerating global process of urbanization, traditional public spaces are facing profound transformations and challenges [1,2]. Driven by both modernization and commercialization, these spaces have gradually lost their original cultural symbolism and social functions, becoming homogenized and lacking vitality [3]. Public spaces, as an essential part of urban and rural social life, bear the daily activities of residents, community interactions, and the transmission of local culture [4]. However, rapid urban expansion and development models focused on economic efficiency often overlook the humanistic value and social significance of public spaces, resulting in a decline in their usage rates and residents’ satisfaction [5,6]. This phenomenon not only weakens community cohesion but also causes the gradual fading of local culture, significantly diminishing the uniqueness and attractiveness of public spaces [7,8,9].

In response to this issue, finding innovative ways to restore and enhance the functionality and cultural connotation of public spaces has become a research priority in urban planning, environmental design, sociology, and other fields [10]. In recent years, art intervention, as a public space renovation approach with interdisciplinary characteristics, has gradually emerged as an effective strategy to improve the quality of public spaces and enhance community vitality [11,12,13]. Art is not only a tool for aesthetic expression but also a form of social practice [14,15]. Through interaction and integration with local communities, it can stimulate residents’ participation, enhance local cultural identity, and promote social connections [16,17]. The application of art intervention in public spaces can break the limitations of a single spatial function, creating shared spaces with diverse cultural meanings and emotional value, thereby improving the space experience and satisfaction of both residents and visitors [18,19].

Although existing studies have pointed out the positive effects of art intervention in improving public spaces, its specific impact mechanisms and pathways still need further exploration [20,21]. These art-led revitalization efforts are situated within a supportive national policy context in China [22]. The government’s comprehensive Rural Revitalization Strategy provides a top-level framework that encourages the regeneration of rural areas by not only improving infrastructure but also by enhancing cultural vitality and preserving local identity [23]. This strategy advocates for innovative approaches to rural development, creating a favorable environment for interventions that use art and culture to stimulate community engagement and restore the social functions of public spaces [24]. A key initiative under this framework is the China Traditional Villages Directory (www.dmctv.cn), which identifies and provides support for the protection of villages with significant historical and cultural value [25]. This directory is a national-level heritage preservation initiative led by the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development and other governmental bodies [26,27]. Its primary purpose is to identify, catalogue, and provide protective status and financial support to villages that possess significant historical, cultural, architectural, or ethnic minority value, thereby safeguarding them against the pressures of rapid modernization and urbanization [28,29]. Inclusion in this directory signifies a village’s national cultural importance1. The village selected for this case study, Machang Village, was included in the fourth batch of this directory in December 2016, underscoring its recognized cultural importance and making it a pertinent example of a community navigating the balance between heritage preservation and modernization.

This study selects Tengchong as the case study for two key reasons: First, Tengchong is a border city in China, with a unique geographical, cultural, and historical context. As an important point of cultural exchange, Tengchong offers a distinctive perspective on how art interventions can promote community cohesion and social interaction, especially in a border region where public spaces are central to ethnic integration, cultural transmission, and community engagement. Second, the traditional villages in Tengchong face the challenge of balancing modernization with the preservation of traditional culture in the process of rural revitalization. Art interventions can play a crucial role in addressing this challenge by enhancing the functionality of public spaces and increasing residents’ satisfaction [30,31].

Thus, this study not only focuses on improving public space functions but also explores how art interventions can foster community cohesion and the accumulation of social capital. The study has significant academic value and practical implications for public space planning and rural revitalization in Tengchong and other similar border areas. The core of this study emphasizes that art intervention is not just a means of beautifying spaces but an important tool for stimulating community vitality, promoting social interaction, and enhancing cultural identity. Through creative and interactive expressions, art can effectively foster emotional connections between residents and the space, strengthening a sense of belonging and participation among community members. The ultimate goal of this study is to provide scientific evidence and practical references for public space planning and renovation, advocating for the deep integration of art and local culture in future space designs, and promoting broad community participation to achieve the dual goals of optimizing public space functionality and enhancing social value.

2. Literature Review

Public spaces, as an important component of both urban and rural environments, play rich social, cultural, and functional roles [32,33]. Early research on public spaces focused on their physical attributes and social functions, emphasizing their role in providing citizens with places for daily life, facilitating social interactions, and shaping social capital within urban communities [34,35]. Mikuni et al. (2024) proposed that public spaces are not just places for daily activities but also serve as a “social stage” for urban life, offering opportunities for communication, interaction, and sharing among different social groups [36]. Li et al. (2022) emphasized that vibrant public spaces can foster diversified social interactions and enhance the safety and livability of cities [37]. However, with the advancement of modernization, traditional public spaces have gradually faced the pressures of commercialization, homogenization, functional simplification, and mounting environmental challenges, leading to new demands for climate resilience and ecological sustainability [38,39,40].

To address this challenge, an increasing amount of research in recent years has focused on how to restore the vitality of public spaces through innovative approaches, enhancing their social functions and cultural connotations [41]. Art intervention, as a new form of public space renovation, has attracted widespread academic attention [42,43]. The significance of art intervention goes beyond aesthetic enhancement; its role in public spaces has been gradually redefined by scholars. Art is no longer merely a decoration for spaces but has become an important tool for promoting social interaction, stimulating community vitality, enhancing cultural identity, and, increasingly, contributing to ecological sustainability [44,45]. Studies have shown that art projects can evoke emotional resonance and cultural expression through visual impact, stimulating residents’ and visitors’ emotional connection to the space, making public spaces more diverse and interactive [46]. Pinder (2008) pointed out that art can change people’s perception of space by enhancing sensory experiences, thereby encouraging positive engagement from residents and visitors [47].

Research on art intervention has shifted from focusing on its aesthetic effects to exploring its social impact and cultural functions [48,49]. Collins (2000) argued that public art is an important manifestation of community cultural identity, capable of strengthening local characteristics and historical context, thereby enhancing the uniqueness and appeal of a place [50]. Additionally, art intervention can promote collective participation among residents, enhancing social capital within communities. Horvath et al. (2025) further noted that the success of art projects depends not only on the artwork itself but also on the participation and co-creation of community members [51]. Through their participation, art projects can both strengthen spatial identity and foster community cohesion and social interaction [52]. These studies indicate that art intervention not only enhances the appeal of public spaces through visual effects and spatial innovation but also promotes community cultural transmission and innovation by increasing residents’ participation and interaction [53].

This evolving function now extends to engaging with environmental mandates and climate-related requirements for public spaces [54,55]. In response to global sustainability frameworks, such as the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals, artistic interventions are increasingly being leveraged to achieve ecological objectives [56,57]. This relationship materializes in several ways: through “Eco-Art” that utilizes sustainable or recycled materials, art that plays a didactic role in raising environmental awareness, or functional installations that integrate with green infrastructure like rainwater harvesting systems [58,59]. In this paradigm, art becomes a performative medium to help meet sustainability targets, bridging the gap between policy goals for environmental resilience and the community’s lived, aesthetic experience of their public spaces [60].

In evaluating the effects of art intervention, scholars have gradually realized that relying solely on qualitative methods (such as case studies and interviews) is insufficient to comprehensively and systematically assess the specific impacts of art intervention [61]. To overcome this limitation, an increasing number of studies have adopted quantitative analysis methods, with Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) being widely applied as an effective tool in public space and art intervention research [62,63]. SEM is capable of effectively handling complex relationships between multiple independent and dependent variables, revealing causal effects between latent variables, making it an ideal method for evaluating the effects of art intervention [64]. Peng et al. (2021) noted that SEM not only tests hypothesized relationships but also evaluates the impact of latent variables, making it highly valuable in social science research, especially in public space assessments [65].

In recent years, many studies have used SEM to analyze the specific effects of art intervention. For example, Elewa (2019) used SEM to analyze the impact of art intervention on the usage rate, residents’ well-being, and community cohesion in urban public spaces, finding that art intervention significantly improved the functionality of public spaces and increased residents’ engagement [66]. The study revealed that art intervention enhanced residents’ satisfaction and sense of belonging by improving the visual effects of the space, increasing its cultural value, and promoting community participation [67,68]. Moreover, the effects of art intervention were found to be closely related to the community’s cultural background, the social capital of residents, and the form and content of the artwork [69]. Therefore, the use of SEM can reveal the mechanisms of art intervention across multiple dimensions, providing strong empirical support for further applications of art intervention.

Additionally, regarding the role of art intervention in promoting cultural identity, studies suggest that art can help residents reassess and identify with local history and culture, thereby enhancing the continuity and innovation of local culture [70]. Wang and Huangfu (2004) emphasized that art intervention is not only about space transformation but also about cultural recreation [71]. By implementing art projects, community members can interact with culture in their daily lives, thereby strengthening their sense of cultural identity. This enhanced cultural identity, in turn, can promote social participation among residents and the collective maintenance of public spaces, forming a positive feedback loop.

Overall, current research on art intervention in public spaces has expanded from focusing solely on aesthetics to broader social and cultural dimensions, with research methods gradually shifting from qualitative to quantitative approaches. The application of statistical tools such as SEM has enabled a more systematic explanation of the mechanisms behind art intervention’s effects. Future research can further explore the deeper relationship between art intervention, local culture, and community identity, investigating specific strategies and effects of art intervention in different cultural contexts. Meanwhile, as urbanization progresses, how to use art intervention to address the issues of homogenization and the loss of functionality in public spaces remains an important topic worthy of further consideration.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)

Existing research on the evaluation of satisfaction with the quality of public spaces often relies on statistical analysis, big data mining, and computer algorithms to identify key influencing factors and their interrelationships. However, these methods sometimes face limitations in describing the causal relationships among complex variables and the interactions of multidimensional factors.

To comprehensively and scientifically assess the effects of art intervention, this study employs Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) as the primary analysis method. SEM is a multivariate statistical tool that combines causal analysis and path analysis, capable of handling complex variable relationships and revealing the interactions and mechanisms between latent factors [72]. Compared to traditional quantitative analysis methods, SEM can simultaneously handle multiple independent and dependent variables and measure latent variables that cannot be directly observed, making it widely applicable in social sciences and environmental research [73].

Through surveys and field investigations, this study collected data on the usage patterns, spatial perception, cultural identity, and emotional experiences of Tengchong’s Machang Village residents and visitors regarding public spaces. The study constructed an analytical model reflecting multiple dimensions such as spatial aesthetics, functional suitability, historical culture, and emotional cognition, aiming to reveal the specific impact of art intervention on these dimensions. By conducting path analysis and model fitting using SEM, the study delves into how art intervention promotes the enhancement of public space functions and cultural reconstruction at various levels.

SEM consists of two main components: the structural model and the measurement model [74]. The structural model aims to uncover the relationships between latent variables (abstract concepts that cannot be directly observed), helping to construct an overarching causal network framework [75]. The measurement model, on the other hand, translates these latent variables into observable indicators, enabling their quantification, measurement, and interpretation. In essence, the measurement model serves as a critical bridge that operationalizes abstract theories, providing a solid data foundation for structural model analysis [76]. By employing this model, we can not only comprehensively explore the intricate relationships between public space quality and residents’ perceptions but also delve into the mechanisms through which multidimensional factors contribute to the formation of resident satisfaction.

Through an empirical analysis based on SEM, this study seeks to present a detailed portrayal of the pathways through which the quality of public spaces in border villages influences residents’ satisfaction. Additionally, it aims to uncover potential areas for improvement. The application of this methodological approach not only underscores the scientific and systematic nature of researching complex social issues but also offers practical insights and strategic recommendations for enhancing the quality of life in border regions.

3.2. Research Area

Machang Village, located in the northern basin of Tengyue Town, Tengchong City, Yunnan Province (Figure 1), is administratively governed by the Tengyue Town Community Villagers’ Committee and comprises two natural settlements: Upper Machang and Lower Machang. Covering approximately 3.99 square kilometers, the village features a varied landscape of gentle hills and flatlands, situated at an average elevation of about 1600 m above sea level.According to official data from the Tengchong Statistical Yearbook (2023) and the Yunnan Climate Resource Survey Report (2022), the village experiences a South Asian subtropical monsoon climate, with a mild annual average temperature of around 15.1 °C and annual precipitation of about 1469 mm. Rainfall and heat occur in the same season, supporting high agricultural productivity.

According to the Tengchong Annual Report on Natural Resources and Planning (2023), Machang Village holds roughly 1070 mu of arable land, with a per capita allocation of 1.25 mu. The local agricultural system is diversified, with staple crops such as rice, corn, and legumes alongside cash crops like flue-cured tobacco and rapeseed. The village benefits from abundant irrigation resources and surrounding sloped forest land, which together form a balanced ecological and agricultural support system that sustains local livelihoods.

From a cultural heritage perspective, Machang Village was listed in the fourth batch of the List of Traditional Chinese Villages in December 2016, recognizing its significant historical, cultural, architectural, and ecological values. This designation provides the village with prioritized access to funding, planning support, and policies aimed at preserving its traditional rural heritage. Moreover, as outlined in the 14th Five-Year Plan for Cultural and Tourism Development of Tengchong City and the Village Classification Plan of Tengyue Town (2021–2035), Machang Village is positioned as a “demonstration site for traditional cultural heritage” and an “art-based rural construction pilot area”. Planned future developments include the creation of intangible cultural heritage spaces, revitalization of traditional village landscapes, and integration of agriculture, culture, and tourism to promote sustainable rural development.

The deliberate selection of Machang Village as the focal case study in this research reflects its unique status and strategic significance within broader rural revitalization and heritage preservation initiatives. Unlike a randomly chosen or “average” village, Machang represents a critical case that embodies the complex dynamics at play in state-led cultural preservation efforts. Its official recognition places it at the forefront of policy implementation, making it an ideal setting to examine both the anticipated benefits and unintended consequences of these initiatives.

Importantly, studying Machang allows for an in-depth exploration of the community’s socio-cultural “software”—encompassing cultural vitality, social cohesion, and collective identity—aspects that may be vulnerable even when basic infrastructural “hardware” is relatively secure. This focus enables a nuanced understanding of how art-based interventions impact these less tangible, yet essential, social dimensions. Furthermore, as this study reveals, the residents’ prioritization of functional and emotional values over purely aesthetic concerns is particularly insightful given the village’s formal heritage status. Such findings challenge prevailing assumptions and provide valuable lessons for the many other listed villages navigating the delicate balance between preservation and modernization.

The village has 769 households with a total population of 3121 people, of which 1311 are engaged in primary industry2. The residents’ income in Machang Village primarily depends on agriculture3. Furthermore, most of the village streets are paved with cement, and some areas retain the original volcanic stone paving. The buildings in the village are well-preserved, with most structures being made of wood and earth, and a few newly constructed buildings are made of brick and stone (Figure 2).

In the public spaces of Machang Village, artistic interventions are carried out in a meticulous and collaborative manner, enhancing both the aesthetic and cultural value of these spaces while strengthening the sense of community. These interventions can be further categorized into the enhancement of functionality, the preservation and innovation of culture, and the promotion of community engagement.

(1)

Artistic Intervention in Residential Public Spaces

In residential public spaces, such as laundry pavilions, cultural activity centers, and gathering areas along village alleys, the primary goal of artistic intervention is to enhance the functionality and aesthetic value of these spaces through visual and installation art. First, artists collaborate with villagers to assess the functions of these spaces, understanding how they are used in daily life. For example, in laundry pavilions, which are important spaces for washing clothes and socializing, artists may design sculptures or installations related to water and labor around these areas. These designs not only beautify the space but also reflect the villagers’ lifestyle and labor culture through artistic expression. Additionally, the intervention may involve small-scale interior modifications, adding functional yet artistic elements such as intricately carved benches or artistically designed drying racks. These detailed improvements make the intervention not only decorative but also practical, providing villagers with a more convenient and pleasant environment.

Cultural activity centers, as venues for communal gatherings and cultural heritage, see artistic interventions focused on blending local history with contemporary culture. Artists create murals or sculpture groups that are inspired by local historical events or traditional practices. For instance, murals may depict the village’s history, agricultural life, or traditional festivals, giving the space a cultural atmosphere while serving as a window for both villagers and visitors to learn about local traditions. Sculptures or installations, on the other hand, reinterpret traditional farming tools or folk objects using modern artistic techniques, turning once-utilitarian items into works of art. This fusion of tradition and modernity not only respects the local cultural heritage but also provides villagers with new cultural experiences. Furthermore, artists organize workshops and exhibitions, encouraging villagers to directly participate in the creation of these artworks. This not only sparks their interest in art but also strengthens their sense of cultural identity and pride.

(2)

Artistic Intervention in Religious Public Spaces

In religious public spaces, such as Longwang Temple, the Yang Clan Ancestral Hall, Guanyin Temple, and Tuzhu Temple, artistic interventions focus on preserving and protecting traditional culture and beliefs. First, the restoration and conservation of religious buildings serve as the foundation of artistic involvement. Artists work carefully to restore these spaces in line with their architectural style, historical value, and religious significance. For example, temple murals that have faded or deteriorated over time are restored using traditional painting techniques combined with modern materials, maintaining the original artistic style while enhancing durability. Similarly, the restoration of sculptures, deities, and temple decorations requires the integration of religious rituals and traditional craftsmanship to ensure that every detail revives the sacred and cultural significance of the site.

Beyond restoration, artists may also introduce contemporary art forms to reinterpret traditional beliefs and culture through modern visual language. For instance, modern sculptures or installations may be added around or within temples, symbolically expressing reverence for the deities or the villagers’ faith. This creative approach transforms religious spaces from static sites for prayer and worship into dynamic cultural displays and platforms for dialogue, attracting more external attention and participation. Thus, temples not only retain their religious functions but also become cross-cultural dialogue spaces. Artists can also participate in religious festivals or traditional ceremonies, designing festival-related installations or performance pieces that enhance the visual appeal and engagement of these activities. For example, during traditional parades or worship ceremonies, artists might design modern-style floats or props, enriching the visual expression of the festival while preserving its traditional core.

Finally, artistic interventions in religious spaces also provide significant opportunities for local tourism. By enhancing the cultural value and aesthetic appeal of temples through artistic means, these religious sites gradually become focal points for visitors, contributing to the local economy. Artists work with cultural tourism departments to design tour routes or cultural experiences that allow visitors to gain a deeper understanding of the history and artistic significance of these religious spaces. This integration of cultural preservation with economic development not only promotes the sustainable use of religious spaces but also increases the overall cultural appeal of the village.

3.3. Construction of Resident Satisfaction Model

Based on existing studies on the relationship between public space quality and resident satisfaction, this paper constructs a Structural Equation Model (SEM) for public space quality and resident satisfaction in historical districts. The model is developed from the reciprocal interaction between the physical spatial environment and users’ psychological perceptions, considering the unique spatial characteristics of traditional villages in border regions and satisfaction theory. The variables required for the model were systematically selected. The variables in this study are divided into latent variables and observed variables. Latent variables are used to describe abstract concepts, while observed variables are used to quantify these latent variables into measurable indicators.

3.3.1. Selection of Latent Variables

The selection of latent variables is based on public-space quality evaluation theories, human settlement environment assessments, and research on traditional village development. The variables are grouped into the following dimensions:

Spatial Aesthetics: As a core element of space quality assessment systems, this dimension addresses the physical and artistic characteristics of the space. The selected latent variables are Art Innovation (AI), Art Aesthetics (AA), and Spatial Appearance Details (SDs).

Functional Suitability: This dimension focuses on the practical aspects of space usage, which directly influences residents’ satisfaction. The selected latent variables are Usability and Flexibility (UF) and Functional Safety and Completeness (FC).

Historical and Cultural Aspects: Reflecting the unique context of traditional villages, this dimension captures the cultural meaning and potential for sustainable development. The selected latent variables are Cultural Integration Expression (CI) and Element Extension (EE).

Emotional Cognition and Satisfaction: Based on satisfaction theory, these dimensions reflect residents’ subjective perceptions and overall evaluations. The selected latent variables are Cultural Emotions (CEs), which serves as a key mediator, and the outcome variable Resident Satisfaction (RS).

3.3.2. Selection of Observed Variables

The selection of observed variables is based on existing research on public-space quality assessment and satisfaction model construction, incorporating the main factors that influence residents’ perceptions of space use [77]. Following the principles of scientific rigor, objectivity, and feasibility, this study selects 33 descriptive variables as observed variables, which together with the latent variables form the complete variable system for the resident satisfaction model.

Before distributing the official questionnaires, a pre-test was conducted. Thirty residents of Machang Village were selected for the pre-test, representing a range of ages, genders, and occupations. After completing the pre-test, the collected data was analyzed to check the clarity, completeness, and potential ambiguities of the questionnaire items. Based on the results of the pre-test, some unclear questions were revised and improved. Additionally, eight experts in public space design and sociology were invited to review the questionnaire. The experts assessed the structure, relevance to the research objectives, and scientific validity of the questions, providing valuable suggestions for revision. Through the pre-test and expert review, the quality and validity of the questionnaire were effectively enhanced, laying a solid foundation for the smooth conduct of the formal survey. The final resident-satisfaction model impact-variable system for Machang Village’s public space is shown in

Table 1. Resident-satisfaction model impact-variable system for Machang Village public space.

Impact Variable Dimension	Latent Variable	Abbreviation	Observed Variable	Description of Indicators
Spatial Aesthetics	Art Innovation	AI	Application of Cutting-edge Concepts	Does the work reflect the latest art concepts or technologies?
			Originality	Is it entirely based on original ideas, not adaptations or imitations?
			Non-traditional Expression	Does it use unconventional methods, such as experimental installations or interactive technology?
	Art Aesthetics	AA	Visual Appeal	Does the artwork attract the viewer’s attention at first glance?
			Balance of Proportions and Composition	Are the proportions of elements in the space or image harmonious?
			Color Layering	Does the color scheme have rich layers, not just simple or flat tones?
	Spatial Appearance Details	SDs	Distinct Regional Characteristics	Does the space have prominent local cultural features?
			Landscape and Architecture Coordination	Do the natural landscape and architectural design complement each other?
			Corner Detailing	Are the corners and edges of the space finely crafted?
			Tactile and Material Experience	Are the materials in the space carefully selected to offer a rich sensory experience?
Functional Suitability	Usability and Flexibility	UF	Clear Function Zone Distinction	Are different functional zones easy to identify and access?
			User Intuition	Can users easily navigate the space without additional guidance?
			Adaptability to Change	Can the space adjust to seasonal changes, such as temperature or ventilation?
			Multi-scene Conversion Convenience	Can the space quickly transition for different uses (e.g., meetings to exhibitions)?
	Functional Safety and Completeness	FC	Disaster Resistance	Does the space or building have disaster-resistant features (e.g., earthquake or fire resistance)?
			Protection for Children and Elderly	Does the space take into account the safety needs of vulnerable groups?
			Long-term Safety Assurance	Does the space maintain safety over prolonged use?
			Emergency Facility Accessibility	Are emergency facilities like first-aid kits or fire extinguishers easy to access?
			Environmental Comfort Facilities	Do lighting or other facilities contribute to a comfortable environment?
Historical and Cultural	Cultural Integration Expression	CI	Coexistence of Multicultural Symbols	Do different cultural symbols coexist naturally within the space?
			Cross-cultural Interaction Experiences	Does the space offer opportunities for cross-cultural exchange, such as interactive exhibits?
			Symbolic Use of Signs	Are specific symbols used to convey deep cultural meanings?
			Cultural Value Transmission	Does the artwork effectively communicate particular cultural values or concepts?
	Element Extension	EE	Sustainable Design Concept	Does the design consider long-term use and sustainable development?
			Expansion of Design Language	Can the design language be continued in other projects?
			Future Development Compatibility	Does the design leave room for future expansion or upgrades?
Emotional Cognition	Cultural Emotions	CEs	Individual Emotional Experience	Does the artwork or space evoke deep emotional responses in individuals?
			Collective Memory Resonance	Does it resonate with the collective memory of a shared history or culture?
			Emotional Persistence	Does the cultural emotion last long after the experience?
			Emotional Depth Variety	Does the space or artwork evoke a variety of emotional responses, such as awe, nostalgia, or joy?
Satisfaction	Resident Satisfaction	RS	Overall Satisfaction	Residents’ overall evaluation of the public space.
			Comparative Satisfaction	Residents’ satisfaction compared to similar public spaces.
			Expected Satisfaction	Residents’ satisfaction compared to their expectations.

.

Through a systematic analysis of the latent and observed variables, this paper constructs a comprehensive and scientific research framework for public space quality and resident satisfaction, providing theoretical support and practical guidance for the optimization of public spaces in traditional villages in border areas and the improvement of residents’ quality of life.

3.4. Path Hypotheses and Model Assumptions

Based on an in-depth analysis of the factors influencing residents’ satisfaction with public spaces in traditional villages, and combining the relationship hypotheses between latent variables, this paper develops a conceptual model to explore the causal relationships and pathways between these influencing factors. Specifically, the hypotheses include the following aspects:

(1)

Positive Correlations Between Latent Variables: It is hypothesized that there are positive correlations between Artistic Innovation, Artistic Aesthetics, Spatial Features, Convenience of Use, Functional Safety, Cultural Integration, Element Extension, and Cultural Emotions. That is, when Artistic Innovation, Artistic Aesthetics, Spatial Features, Convenience of Use, Functional Safety, Cultural Integration, and Element Extension perform better, residents’ emotional cognition level will be higher.

(2)

Positive Correlation Between Cultural Emotion and Resident Satisfaction: It is hypothesized that residents’ emotional cognition of public spaces directly influences their overall satisfaction with the living environment. When emotional cognition is more positive, residents’ satisfaction levels will increase.

Based on these assumptions, and in conjunction with the path hypotheses, this paper preliminarily designs a structural equation model for resident satisfaction. The model consists of nine latent variables and corresponding observed variables, including “artistic innovation,” “artistic aesthetics,” “spatial features,” “convenience of use,” “functional safety,” and other elements.

(1)

Latent Variables: Latent variables are abstract concepts that cannot be directly observed. They are reflected through multiple observed variables and are represented by ellipses.

(2)

Observed Variables: Observed variables are concrete indicators of latent variables, used for specific measurement, and are represented by rectangles.

(3)

Relationships Between Variables: In the model, arrows indicate the causal relationships between variables, and the “+” sign indicates a positive correlation.

To visually demonstrate the interactions and causal pathways between latent variables, the conceptual model designed in this paper is shown in Figure 3. The variable relationships in the model are reflected in the following aspects:

(1)

Artistic Innovation, Artistic Aesthetics, and Spatial Features: As the core dimensions of spatial aesthetics, these variables indirectly influence emotional cognition through the reflection of infrastructure and service levels, thereby affecting residents’ satisfaction.

(2)

Convenience of Use and Functional Safety: As essential core elements of public space, these two variables significantly enhance residents’ emotional cognition and provide important support for the formation of satisfaction.

(3)

Cultural Integration and Element Extension: Cultural Integration and Element Extension enrich the cultural layers and diverse expressions of the space, strengthening residents’ sense of belonging and cultural identity, thus significantly improving their satisfaction.

(4)

Emotional Cognition: Emotional cognition, as a mediating variable, serves as a bridge linking physical space, cultural characteristics, and satisfaction. It is a key factor influencing residents’ satisfaction.

3.5. Survey Design and Data Collection

The survey questionnaire designed for this study is divided into two parts. The first part collects personal information from residents, such as gender, age, occupation, education level, and length of residence. The second part focuses on residents’ satisfaction with public space quality, specifically covering latent variables and their corresponding observed variables. To quantify residents’ subjective perceptions, a Likert five-point scale is used, with scores ranging from five to one to represent “Very Satisfied,” “Satisfied,” “Neutral,” “Dissatisfied,” and “Very Dissatisfied,” respectively.

Data collection was conducted through face-to-face interviews to ensure the authenticity and completeness of the questionnaire responses. The survey was conducted from June 2024 to February 2025 (initially planned to conclude in September 2024 but extended to February 2025 to supplement the sample) in Machang Village, Tengchong City, Yunnan Province (

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of population variables in Machang Village.

Category	Items	No.	Percentage
Gender	Male	137	61%
	Female	87	39%
Educational Background	Higher school or above	175	78%
	College degree	45	20%
	Bachelor’s or above	4	2%
Age	20 years and below	69	31%
	20–50 years	25	11%
	50–60 years	49	22%
	60 years and above	81	36%
Occupation	Student	72	32%
	Farmer	74	33%
	Worker	47	21%
	Civil servant	20	9%
	Self-employed	7	3%
	Retired or other	4	2%
Monthly Average Income	1000 or below	119	53%
	1000–3000	56	25%
	3000–5000	34	15%
	5000 and above	15	7%

). Villagers were randomly selected as survey participants. All procedures involving human participants were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional ethics committee and the Declaration of Helsinki. Oral informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. A total of 245 questionnaires were distributed, and after screening, 224 valid responses were obtained, resulting in an effective response rate of 91.4%.

Regarding the gender distribution, the male proportion is higher than the female, and 58% of the respondents are aged 50 or above, indicating a higher proportion of elderly individuals in the sample. This reflects the severity of the aging population issue. With the increasing elderly population, challenges such as labor shortages, as well as pressure on pension and medical resources, may arise. On the other hand, 31% of the respondents are under 20, which can be considered a representative group of left-behind children. This indicates that there is a certain proportion of left-behind children in the sample, who face the absence of parental companionship and care, which could affect their psychological and educational development.

3.6. Data Analysis and Model Validation

3.6.1. Reliability and Validity Analysis

Reliability is the evaluation of the stability and consistency of the results after analyzing the survey data [78]. We performed reliability analysis using IBM SPSS Statistics (version 27) software and obtained the Cronbach’s α coefficients for each dimension and the overall scale (see

Table 3. Reliability analysis.

Influencing Variable Dimension	Latent Variable	Number of Items	Alpha Coefficient	Overall Scale Reliability
Spatial Aesthetics	Art Innovation (AI1–AI3)	3	0.832	0.863
	Art Aesthetics (AA1–AA3)	3	0.887
	Spatial Appearance Details (SD1–SD4)	4	0.912
Functional Suitability	Usability and Flexibility (UF1–UF4)	4	0.807
	Functional Safety and Completeness (FC1–FC5)	5	0.867
Historical and Cultural	Cultural Integration Expression (CI1–CI4)	4	0.848
	Element Extension (EE1–EE3)	3	0.917
Emotional Cognition	Cultural Emotions (CE1–CE4)	4	0.831
Satisfaction	Resident Satisfaction (RS1–RS3)	3	0.877

). The results show that the overall scale’s α coefficient is 0.863, and the α coefficients for each subscale are all greater than 0.8, indicating that the items in the scale have good internal consistency, and the reliability of the questionnaire is good, allowing it to reliably reflect the measured content.

Validity refers to the degree of consistency between the measurement results and the actual data [79]. The higher the validity, the more accurately the measurement results reflect the true measurement situation. To assess validity, we first performed the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett’s test of sphericity on the data. A KMO value greater than 0.9 indicates that factor analysis is very appropriate, while a value of 0.6 or below suggests it is not suitable. Bartlett’s test is used to determine whether the variables are independent and suitable for factor analysis.

The test results (see

Table 4. KMO and Bartlett’s test analysis.

Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy	0.931
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity	Approximate Chi-Square	9075.135
	Df	403
	sig	0.000

) show that the KMO value is 0.931, indicating that the data is suitable for factor analysis. Additionally, the approximate chi-square value of Bartlett’s test is 9075.135, with 403 degrees of freedom, and the sig value passed the 1% significance level test, indicating that the variables are sufficiently independent and meet the requirements for subsequent analysis.

3.6.2. Exploratory Factor Analysis

Exploratory factor analysis aims to reveal whether the preset variables are consistent with the principal component factors extracted from the actual data. Using the principal component extraction method and applying varimax rotation, factors with eigenvalues greater than one were extracted. The 33 items from the survey scale were analyzed using principal component extraction, yielding nine initial factors with eigenvalues greater than 1. The cumulative explained variance was 73.803%, indicating that the nine common factors as latent variables provide a good explanation of the data (see

Table 5. Total variance explained.

NO.	Initial Eigenvalues			Extraction Sum of Squared Loadings			Rotation Sum of Squared Loadings
	Total	Variance %	Cumulative %	Total	Variance %	Cumulative %	Total	Variance %	Cumulative %
1	8.698	29.990	29.990	8.698	29.990	29.990	4.212	14.357	14.357
2	3.423	11.802	41.792	3.423	11.802	41.792	3.421	11.795	26.152
3	2.032	7.006	48.798	2.032	7.006	48.798	3.049	10.512	36.664
4	1.829	6.306	55.104	1.829	6.306	55.104	2.881	9.933	46.597
5	1.784	6.151	61.255	1.784	6.151	61.255	2.655	9.514	56.111
6	1.502	5.178	66.433	1.502	5.178	66.433	2.351	8.366	64.477
7	1.450	2.965	69.398	1.450	2.965	69.398	1.893	4.218	68.695
8	1.292	2.423	71.821	1.292	2.423	71.821	1.325	2.767	71.462
9	1.181	1.982	73.803	1.181	1.982	73.803	1.062	2.341	73.803
10	0.975	1.762	75.565
...
33	0.210	0.064	100

Note: Extraction method is principal component analysis.

), which aligns with the preset latent variables and confirms the reliability of the survey data.

3.7. Satisfaction Index Calculation

To quantify overall satisfaction, a Composite Satisfaction Index (CSI) was calculated based on the validated SEM. The index is derived using the following weighted formula:

$$CSI=\sum \left(C_i\times W_i\right)$$

(1)

In this formula, $C_i$ represents the average satisfaction score obtained from the survey data for each individual observed variable. The term $W_i$ represents the composite weight of that observed variable, which reflects its hierarchical importance within the overall model.

The composite weight ($W_i$) is the product of two distinct standardized coefficients drawn from the SEM results: 1. The standardized factor loading of the observed variable on its parent latent variable. This value represents the importance and contribution of the individual indicator to its specific latent construct (e.g., the contribution of “Originality” to the “Art Innovation” latent variable). 2. The standardized total effect (path coefficient) of that latent variable on the final “Resident Satisfaction” (RS) latent variable. This value represents the overall influence that the entire dimension has on resident satisfaction.

By multiplying these two components, this two-step weighting method produces a robust index that ensures an indicator’s final contribution to the CSI accurately reflects both its significance within its own dimension and that dimension’s overall importance in driving resident satisfaction.

4. Results

4.1. Model Testing

Based on the standardized path coefficients and structural path coefficients from the model outputs, path analysis is a key statistical method used to verify whether the preset path hypotheses are supported and valid in the data. By comparing the output of the model’s path hypothesis (see

Table 6. Path hypothesis verification results.

Path	Direct Effect	Indirect Effect	Total Effect
AI-RS	0.232	0.113	0.345
AA-RS	0.183	0.090	0.273
SD-RS	0.259	0.126	0.385
UF-RS	0.287	0.136	0.431
FC-RS	0.275	0.081	0.356
CI-RS	0.182	0.101	0.283
EE-RS	0.264	0.871	1.135
CE-RS	0.490	-	0.490

) and the distribution of path coefficients (as shown in Figure 4), it is found that all path coefficients are greater than 0.01 and have reached a significant level.

This means that the relationships between the various paths in the model have been effectively validated. The residuals are integers, and the factor loadings of each observed variable also show significance, indicating that the relationships between the paths have strong statistical meaning. This suggests that the model accurately reflects the real influence among the latent variables.

Based on this, we can conclude that the first key condition for the validity of the path hypotheses has been fully met, ensuring the reliability and effectiveness of the model, laying a solid foundation for further analysis and model verification.

Additionally, the structural path coefficients are all positive and meet the required standards, fulfilling the second condition for the path hypotheses. The obtained path effects (standardized estimates) were tested for indirect effects using the Bootstrap method. The resulting indirect and total effects reflect the influence of various variables on the residents’ satisfaction variable (see

Table 7. Path effects for resident satisfaction variable.

Hypothesis	Path	Standardized Parameter Estimate (Std.)	Critical Ratio (T-Value)	p-Value	Conclusion
H1	AI-RS	0.232	5.156	***	Valid
H2	AA-RS	0.183	4.067	***	Valid
H3	SD-RS	0.259	5.756	***	Valid
H4	UF-RS	0.287	6.378	***	Valid
H5	FC-RS	0.275	6.111	***	Valid
H6	CI-RS	0.182	4.044	***	Valid
H7	EE-RS	0.264	5.867	***	Valid
H8	CE-RS	0.490	10.889	***	Valid

Note: The p value *** indicates that the correlation strength of the variables is high and the path effect is significant.

).

4.2. Satisfaction Results and Discussion

Based on the structural equation model and scale data, this study quantifies the satisfaction of residents with respect to the art intervention in public spaces.

Determining the Weight of Measurement Indicators: The latent variable path effects (i.e., impact proportions) were weighted; the standardized factor loadings of the observed variables were considered as impact factors; and the weight of each observed variable within its latent variable was calculated. By multiplying the weights with the average satisfaction score of each variable, the final satisfaction index was determined (

Table 8. Variable weights and satisfaction index.

Latent Variable	Observed Variable	Standardized Factor Loadings	Observed Variable Weight	Observed Variable Satisfaction	Latent Variable Satisfaction
Art Innovation (AI)	AI1	0.749	0.317	3.752	3.609
	AI2	0.808	0.342	3.517
	AI3	0.805	0.341	3.569
Art Aesthetics (AA)	AA1	0.740	0.337	3.365	3.450
	AA2	0.734	0.334	3.522
	AA3	0.725	0.329	3.463
Spatial Appearance Details (SDs)	SD1	0.800	0.252	3.799	3.519
	SD2	0.818	0.257	3.324
	SD3	0.772	0.243	3.598
	SD4	0.789	0.248	3.358
Usability and Flexibility (UF)	UF1	0.795	0.254	3.920	3.491
	UF2	0.814	0.260	3.967
	UF3	0.711	0.227	2.965
	UF4	0.812	0.259	3.054
Functional Safety and Completeness (FC)	FC1	0.816	0.208	4.000	3.907
	FC2	0.769	0.196	3.811
	FC3	0.699	0.179	3.802
	FC4	0.815	0.208	3.902
	FC5	0.816	0.208	4.000
Cultural Integration Expression (CI)	CI1	0.698	0.226	3.687	3.734
	CI2	0.832	0.269	3.421
	CI3	0.799	0.258	3.987
	CI4	0.765	0.247	3.852
Element Extension (EE)	EE1	0.836	0.365	3.654	3.671
	EE2	0.874	0.382	3.461
	EE3	0.702	0.253	4.011
Cultural Emotions (CEs)	CE1	0.829	0.301	3.942	3.970
	CE2	0.763	0.278	4.105
	CE3	0.712	0.242	3.902
	CE4	0.690	0.179	3.910

).

Based on the analysis of the weights and satisfaction data for each latent variable and its observed variables, this study derives the satisfaction index for each latent variable (Figure 5).

Cultural Emotions (CEs) and Functional Safety (FC)—Highest Satisfaction Contributors: The Cultural Emotions (CEs) construct attained the highest latent satisfaction score of 3.970, suggesting that symbolic, emotional, and cultural dimensions embedded within the public art and space design were highly appreciated by residents. CEs’ strong score indicates that aesthetic cues aligning with local identity and heritage evoked a positive emotional response, reinforcing the cultural resonance of the intervention. Similarly, Functional Safety and Completeness (FC) recorded a high score of 3.907, highlighting residents’ recognition of practical and safety-related features—such as structural completeness, spatial clarity, and user-friendly circulation. The combination of CEs and FC topping the ranking reveals a dual-pathway satisfaction model: on one hand, cultural symbolism fosters emotional attachment; on the other, functional coherence promotes behavioral comfort and perceived spatial legitimacy. This indicates that interventions that integrate symbolic meaning with pragmatic design principles are most effective in achieving holistic satisfaction.

Artistic Value and Innovation—Moderate but Meaningful Contributions: Art Innovation (AI) and Art Aesthetics (AA) received scores of 3.609 and 3.450, respectively. These values reflect a moderately high appreciation of the visual creativity and aesthetic qualities brought by the intervention. However, their relatively lower position in the satisfaction hierarchy suggests two possibilities: (1) the aesthetic and creative expressions may not have fully aligned with local cultural expectations or user preferences; or (2) functional and emotional benefits may have been prioritized by residents over purely visual features. This finding is significant in that it questions the common assumption in public art projects that “more artistic means more satisfying.” Rather, it implies that artistic innovation should serve as a medium for deeper cultural and functional communication, rather than being a stand-alone objective.

Mid-Tier Constructs—Usability, Appearance, and Integration: The latent variables Spatial Appearance Details (SDs) and Usability and Flexibility (UF) scored 3.519 and 3.491, respectively. SDs represent residents’ perceptions of surface textures, material articulation, and environmental coherence. Its satisfactory score indicates that visual clarity and contextual integration were generally achieved but perhaps lacked refinement or personalization. UF reflects how well the space accommodates diverse user behaviors and needs. Its result shows residents value flexibility in use, though certain infrastructural or configurational constraints may still exist. Cultural Integration Expression (CI) scored 3.734, indicating that residents recognized the presence of culturally relevant features. However, the score also suggests that cultural references may have lacked clarity, visibility, or immersive impact. This points to a design challenge in how to express cultural symbols in more intuitive, engaging, or dynamic ways—particularly for diverse age groups and user types.

Element Extension (EE)—Scope for Enhancement: Element Extension (EE) scored 3.671, placing it in the lower half of the satisfaction rankings. EE captures the perceived continuity and adaptability of spatial and artistic elements beyond the immediate intervention. The relatively lower score here may reflect a sense of “design fragmentation” or a lack of narrative continuity across the public space. It may also indicate limited interaction between new interventions and pre-existing community elements, highlighting the need for a more systemic integration strategy in future interventions.

In summary, the weighted satisfaction analysis underscores the multidimensional nature of spatial and emotional perception in post-intervention public environments. The most satisfying constructs—Cultural Emotions and Functional Completeness—demonstrate the effectiveness of combining emotional resonance with practical value. Meanwhile, constructs such as usability, integration, and aesthetics reveal nuanced areas where future interventions can be refined for greater impact. The findings suggest that public art and spatial redesign should prioritize contextual cultural embedding, functional clarity, and meaningful symbolism, rather than rely solely on visual novelty or design complexity. When the artistic layer complements both emotional belonging and functional use, user satisfaction increases substantially.

5. Discussion

Our study leveraged Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to dissect the complex relationship between art interventions in rural public spaces and resident satisfaction. The findings reveal a nuanced interplay between aesthetic, functional, cultural, and emotional factors. This section discusses the interpretation of these findings, their implications for spatial planning in China, and the applicability and limitations of our model.

5.1. The Dual-Pathways of Satisfaction: Integrating the Symbolic and the Pragmatic

A primary finding of this study is that residents’ satisfaction is most strongly driven by two key factors: Cultural Emotions (CEs) and Functional Safety and Completeness (FC). This “dual-pathway” satisfaction mechanism provides a significant insight: successful public space transformation is not achieved through aesthetic enhancement alone but through the synergistic integration of symbolic, emotional resonance and practical, functional utility. This result empirically supports the theoretical arguments that public art should be a form of social practice, not just aesthetic expression, and that vibrant public spaces must support the daily activities and interactions of residents.

While past research has often highlighted the importance of community identity and participation in art interventions [80,81], our study provides a quantitative model that demonstrates how these elements translate into measurable satisfaction through the latent variable of “Cultural Emotions”. Conversely, the high importance of “Functional Safety” aligns with research emphasizing that usability and safety are foundational to the quality of public spaces. Our model unites these two streams, suggesting that art interventions are most potent when they enhance cultural identity while simultaneously improving the space’s core functions.

Notably, the direct aesthetic components Art Innovation (AI) and Art Aesthetics (AA) were found to be only moderate contributors to overall satisfaction. This finding challenges the conventional assumption that visual novelty is the primary goal of public art. It suggests that for residents of a traditional village like Machang, art is not merely a spectacle but a medium. Its value is contingent on its ability to integrate with local culture and enhance the livability of the space. Without this deeper integration, artistic creativity alone is insufficient to generate high levels of satisfaction.

5.2. Implications for Rural Revitalization and Spatial Planning in China

These findings have direct and practical implications for China’s ongoing Rural Revitalization Strategy [82,83]. This national policy framework calls for enhancing cultural vitality and preserving local identity, not just upgrading infrastructure [84,85]. Our study offers an empirical blueprint for how to achieve these goals. The SEM model validates a community-engaged and culturally embedded approach, shifting the focus from top-down beautification projects to bottom-up strategies that prioritize residents’ emotional and functional needs.

For the thousands of traditional villages listed in the China Traditional Villages Directory, including Machang Village, our model provides a transferable framework. It demonstrates how to balance heritage preservation with modernization by using art as a catalyst for reinforcing cultural identity and community cohesion. Planners and policymakers can use the dimensions of our model (e.g., Cultural Integration, Functional Completeness, Emotional Cognition) as a checklist to ensure that revitalization projects are holistic and human-centered. This is particularly crucial in border regions like Tengchong, where public spaces are central to cultural transmission and social integration.

5.3. Applicability and Limitations of the Model

The SEM framework developed in this study is intended as a replicable tool for both academic research and practical application. Planners, local governments, and artists can adapt the model to perform the following tasks: 1. Diagnose pre-intervention needs: By surveying residents using the model’s variables, stakeholders can identify specific weaknesses in a public space (e.g., poor usability, lack of cultural expression) and tailor the art intervention accordingly. 2. Evaluate post-intervention impact: The model provides a multi-dimensional scorecard to assess the success of a project far more comprehensively than metrics like visitor numbers, capturing nuanced impacts on cultural identity, emotional well-being, and functional satisfaction.

Despite its utility, this study has several limitations that must be acknowledged. Generalizability: As a single-case study of Machang Village, the findings are context-specific. The village’s unique history, its location in a border region, and its demographic makeup all influence resident perceptions. Future research should apply and validate the model in different rural contexts across China and internationally. Methodological Constraints: The research relies on a cross-sectional survey, capturing resident satisfaction at a single point in time. A longitudinal study would be beneficial to track how perceptions evolve as the novelty of the art intervention wears off and it becomes part of daily life. Furthermore, the use of a Likert scale introduces subjectivity inherent in all self-reported data [86]. Sample Demographics: Our sample included a high percentage of residents who were elderly or under the age of 20, which may represent a population of “left-behind” children and elders. The needs and perceptions of these groups might differ from those of working-age adults, potentially skewing the results towards a greater appreciation for community, tradition, and safety over economic or purely innovative aspects.

5.4. Practical Recommendations for Structural Changes in Public Spaces

Translating the findings of our “dual-pathway” model into actionable design strategies requires a focus on both pragmatic functionality and cultural resonance. Based on the demonstrated importance of Functional Safety and Completeness (FC) and Cultural Emotions (CEs), we propose the following specific recommendations for structural changes in rural public spaces:

Develop Multi-Functional “Micro-Hubs”: Instead of creating large, single-purpose squares, revitalization efforts should focus on designing smaller, layered “micro-hubs” that integrate multiple functions. For instance, a traditional pavilion could be structurally enhanced with built-in seating and weather-proof lighting for evening use (addressing FC) and incorporate carved patterns from local folklore on its posts and beams (addressing CEs). This combines social gathering, rest, and cultural expression in one compact structure.

Prioritize Culturally Resonant and Tactile Materials: The choice of materials for structural elements like paving, benches, and retaining walls is critical. Our findings suggest that using locally sourced materials (e.g., volcanic stone from the Tengchong region, aged wood) is more effective than generic modern materials. These materials not only have better Element Extension (EE) but also evoke Cultural Emotions (CEs) through tactile memory and visual familiarity. For example, pathways could blend modern, non-slip surfaces for safety (FC) with borders of traditional stone, creating a structural narrative.

Design for Adaptability with Modular Art Installations: To improve Usability and Flexibility (UF), art interventions should be structurally adaptable. This could involve creating modular seating arrangements that can be reconfigured by residents for different events (e.g., markets, festivals, outdoor performances). Artistic installations could be designed with removable or updatable components, allowing the community to co-create and refresh the space over time, thus maintaining both novelty and a sense of ownership.

Embed Safety Features as Aesthetic Elements: Rather than adding safety features as an afterthought, they should be integrated into the artistic design. For example, handrails along steps could be forged by local artisans in the style of traditional ironwork; protective barriers for children’s play areas could be designed as low, wide, sculptural stone walls that double as seating; and emergency lighting could be housed within artistic lanterns that align with the village’s aesthetic.

6. Conclusions

This study provides a comprehensive investigation into the mechanisms through which art interventions affect resident satisfaction in rural public spaces, using Machang Village as a representative case. By integrating spatial, functional, cultural, and emotional dimensions within a Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) framework, the research validates the hypothesis that artistic practices can generate multifaceted improvements in spatial experience and public engagement when aligned with local identity and community needs.

The empirical results reveal that Cultural Emotions (CEs) and Functional Safety and Completeness (FC) are the most critical drivers of satisfaction. This primary finding highlights a dual-pathway satisfaction model, wherein residents are not only concerned with the symbolic and aesthetic value of a space but are equally, if not more, influenced by its usability, safety, and capacity to meet everyday needs.

Crucially, the findings challenge the assumption that aesthetic enhancement alone is sufficient for successful spatial transformation. While Art Innovation (AI) and Art Aesthetics (AA) contribute meaningfully to the perception of space, their impact is moderate. Their effects are magnified only when deeply embedded within culturally coherent narratives and supported by infrastructural adequacy. In this context, emotional cognition acts as a key mediating factor that bridges artistic expression with user satisfaction, reinforcing the necessity of designing not just for the eye but for memory, identity, and community bonds.

Furthermore, the analysis indicates a need to improve design continuity, as reflected by the lower satisfaction scores for Element Extension (EE). This suggests that fragmented artistic installations may fail to produce a coherent spatial narrative, highlighting the need for a more systemic integration strategy in future interventions. Practically, this translates into specific structural recommendations, such as developing multi-functional micro-hubs instead of single-use squares, embedding safety features within culturally resonant aesthetic elements, and utilizing modular designs and local materials that enhance both usability and cultural identity.

In conclusion, this study contributes a quantifiable, theory-backed evaluation model that bridges the qualitative aspirations of cultural revitalization with the quantitative assessment of user satisfaction. It provides a replicable framework for scholars, planners, and artists, advocating for a context-sensitive, community-driven, and culturally embedded approach to rural regeneration. By doing so, it advances the argument that art is not merely decorative but a performative and participatory force capable of reshaping how people inhabit, interpret, and value public space.