Coastal Health of the Moroccan Mediterranean Coast: An Ecosystem Perspective for Coastal Management

Abstract

Coastal health assessment and diagnosis are important tools for decision-making and coastal management. In this paper, the concept of ecosystem health, which uses medical terminology to define the state of coastal health, was applied to examine and diagnose the state of the physical coastal systems of 120 coastal sites along the Moroccan Mediterranean coastline. Based on this assessment approach, five categories are defined: (1) “Good Health”, with two subdivisions: (1a) “Health Warning” and (1b) “Surface Wounds”; (2) “Minor Injury”; (3) “Major Injury”; (4) “On Life Support” and (5) “Deceased”. According to the results obtained, 38 sites (32%) were classified in the “Good Health” category, with 35 sites (29%) in the “Health Warning” and 11 (9%) in the “Surface Wounds” subdivisions; 14 sites (12%) in each of the “Minor Injury” and “Major Injury” categories; no sites (0%) in the “On Life Support” category; and 8 sites (7%) in the “Deceased” category. The considerable percentage of sites in the alert and lower categories highlights the level of degradation and ongoing loss of coastal ecosystems along the Moroccan Mediterranean coast due to the significant impact of anthropogenic processes and inadequate coastal management practices, highlighting the current degradation of its physical state and its capacity to function naturally, i.e., its ability to respond to various present and future environmental changes. The results and proposals presented in this paper offer important perspectives for the governance, preservation, and management of coastal systems and are very useful in limiting and preventing the degradation of coastal systems linked to natural processes and the development of future anthropogenic activities. In addition, they stress the importance of protecting sites classified as “healthy” and restoring those classified as “alert” or “unhealthy”, using sound management strategies based on reliable scientific data.

1. Introduction

The coast is one of the most dynamic, changing, and valued geomorphological features on Earth [1,2]. According to Carter [3], it can be defined as “an area where aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems interact”, although some authors find it challenging to define the coast precisely [4]. In simple terms, it can be defined from two complementary perspectives: from a biological point of view, it constitutes a natural habitat for a great diversity of living organisms [5,6], while from a geological point of view, it is considered to be a deposit of sediments of variable size, formed by the action of waves, currents, and tides [7,8]. Coasts offer a whole range of functions and services that are necessary, directly or indirectly, for ecological, economic, and social systems [9,10]. From an ecological point of view, they host ecosystems with a high diversity of living organisms, support nutrient cycling, and provide habitats for many species [11,12,13], in addition to ecosystem services that control functions like sediment supply, carbon storage, and waste detoxification [14,15]. In terms of protection, they provide natural protection by mitigating the impact of erosion processes [16]. From an economic and social point of view, they support key benefits and activities such as fishing, agriculture, and tourism, generating significant incomes and providing recreational opportunities and valued leisure areas [17,18,19,20].

Coasts are one of the most heavily stressed environments due to multiple human interventions and unplanned or poorly planned development [21,22,23,24]. Furthermore, due to its position in a vast transition zone between land and sea, coastal geomorphological systems are vulnerable to the combined influences of terrestrial and marine factors [25,26]. Coastal evolution is essentially linked to two main factors: human activities and natural phenomena [27,28]. Human intervention disrupts coastal systems and their natural balance [29,30]. The degradation process has a number of undesirable effects, such as the destruction of natural ecosystems, the deterioration of water quality, the exposure of coastal communities to environmental hazards, and the gradual disappearance of the natural landscape and historical heritage [31,32,33]. Human impacts on ecosystems often go beyond ecosystem boundaries, making their preservation, protection, and management difficult [34,35] and altering, disrupting, or limiting the natural functioning of coastal systems and their capacity to adapt and respond to natural changes. All these considerations lead to the fundamental concept of “Ecosystem Health”, which is constantly evolving and is not easy to give a precise and unique scientific definition [36].

According to Costanza et al. ([37], p. 9), “an ecological system is healthy... if it is stable and sustainable—that is, if it is active and maintains its organization and autonomy over time and is resilient to stress”. In other words, the state or condition of an ecosystem reflects its characteristics, such as composition and structure, within specific limits considered normal for its stage of ecological development [38]. The concept of ecosystem health is strongly linked to the capacity of ecosystems in their environment to continue to provide and maintain a diversity of ecosystem services and guarantee human well-being [39,40]. Furthermore, it is an ecological concept based on the analysis of environmental conditions and the effects of human actions, with the aim of providing indications for the sustainable and efficient management of natural resources [41,42]. This concept has often been used to assess ecosystems and as a management method to solve environmental problems, taking into account the long-term sustainability of the ecosystem and its ability to resist or recover from disturbances [39,42,43].

Morocco’s Mediterranean coastline is under considerable pressure from rapid and, often, poorly managed development. This situation is reflected in a high rate of urbanization and uncontrolled coastal urbanization spreading along the coast, accompanied by sustained population growth. Therefore, the coastline represents an important axis for infrastructure and economic activities. The development of the tourism sector, marked by the expansion of hotels, holiday residences, and promenades, has often been associated with the enhancement along the coast of industrial and commercial activities (ports, industrial zones, etc.) and intensive fishing activities. This state of affairs leads to an increase in environmental risks, such as the degradation and/or over-exploitation of natural resources, pollution, coastal erosion, alteration of landscapes, etc., all of which affect the ecological balance of this environment [44]. Under the above conditions, Morocco’s Mediterranean coastal health has suffered a significant deterioration in its capacity to function naturally, with negative repercussions on the sustainability of its associated ecosystems.

The concept of ecosystem health has recently been adopted and appropriately applied by Cooper and Jackson [45] to the coastal environment to examine their physical state in the context of a coastal health assessment. The aim of this approach is to identify the degree of human intervention that is likely to modify or has already modified the natural coastal system, thereby assessing the degree of integrity and functioning of the system. This new approach assesses human damage to the coastal ecosystem, its ecological integrity, and its ability to function naturally in the face of natural challenges, rather than a pragmatic vision aimed at measuring the coast’s ability to protect human assets and interests.

In this paper, the coastal health approach adopted by Cooper and Jackson [45] was applied to examine and diagnose the state of physical coastal systems at 120 coastal sites along the Moroccan Mediterranean coastline to propose appropriate management models for their protection, preservation, and enhancement. The results will offer decision-makers and coastal managers an accurate assessment and inventory of the state of coastal health, helping them to develop effective coastal planning that incorporates an ecosystem-based approach adapted to environmental and socio-economic issues. Furthermore, this study also aims to test and apply the method used along the Moroccan Mediterranean coast in order to improve and enhance its implications for coastal management and conservation strategies.

2. Study Area

The Moroccan coastline benefits from a privileged geographical position at the northwestern tip of the African continent, forming a natural bridge between Europe and Africa through the Strait of Gibraltar (Figure 1). The country has an exceptional coastline that stretches 512 km along the Mediterranean Sea and around 3000 km along the Atlantic Ocean.

The Morocco Mediterranean coast from Cap Spartel, at the western end, and Saïdia, at the eastern end, represents almost 15% of the entire Moroccan coastline and is essentially constituted (80%) by cliffs and, secondarily (20%), by beaches within a succession of bays and capes. Sediments are composed of sand (from fine to coarse), gravel, pebbles, and cobbles [46]. A seasonal wind system affects the coastline: prevailing winds blow from west to south-west in winter and from east to northeast in summer. The tidal regime is semi-diurnal and microtidal, with a decrease in the tidal gradient towards the east, varying between an average of 2 m at Tangier and 0.3 m at Saïdia [47]. The Moroccan Mediterranean coast has a rich and diverse natural heritage marked by a wide variety of landscapes, strong geomorphological dynamics, and significant morphological diversity, offering enormous natural potential and sheltering a highly varied faunal and floristic biodiversity, such as sandy and rocky coasts, coves, cliffs, headlands, lagoons, rivers, estuaries, deltas, wetlands, fixed and mobile dunes, etc. A large number of rivers flow along this coastline, the main ones being Smir, Martil, Amsa, Laou, Ouringa, Ghiss, Nekkor, and Moulouya (Figure 1). In recent years, the quality of the Moroccan Mediterranean coast has been studied from various aspects, such as marine litter [47], microplastics in sediments [48,49] and the biotope [50], beach wrack [51], heavy metals [52,53,54,55,56,57,58], bacteriological quality [59], environmental sensitivity [60], landscape [46,61,62,63], environmental impact on the dynamics of marine communities [64], and the recording of new species [65,66], among others. However, its state of health has never been studied.

The results of the above-mentioned studies have shown that this coastline faces a series of challenges. Marine litter on beaches gives rise to relatively moderate pollution. For macro-litter, the average value for all Moroccan Mediterranean beaches is 0.054 items/m², with plastics representing 83.3% of the total observed litter items [47]. For beach wrack, the cover was very thin, and its presence was not considered a factor directly related to the amount of litter, but it does constitute an important trap for debris [51]. Microplastic pollution remains slightly higher in the eastern part (east of Al Hoceima) than in the western part, with an average of 99.79 MPs/kg of dry sediment [48] and 59.33 MPs/kg of dry sediment, respectively [49]. Biotopes appear to be more affected by microplastic pollution. Sponges, which play an important role in maintaining the overall health and productivity of marine ecosystems, show fairly high pollution levels along the Moroccan Mediterranean coast, with values ranging from 3.95 × 10⁵ to 1.05 × 10⁶ particles/g, and all the specimens analyzed were affected by this pollution [50]. Heavy metal contamination varies along the Moroccan Mediterranean coastline. In particular, along the Bay of Tangier in the northwest, high concentrations of cadmium (Cd) have been recorded in beach sediments and surface seawater, while high concentrations of arsenic (As) have been found in marine sediments [52,53]. On the central Mediterranean coast, in the Al Hoceima region, the heavy metal pollution index reveals completely unsuitable water quality in autumn and summer and poor quality in winter and spring, where arsenic (As) and nickel (Ni) contamination exceeds international standards, representing a potential risk to the marine environment and human health [55]. In the Nador lagoon, high concentrations of copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) were detected [56]. The bacteriological quality of the northwest Mediterranean coast of Morocco complies with Moroccan regulatory standards, and health risks are minimal, with the exception of fecal coliforms (FC), which exceed limits in summer in Tangier Bay [59]. As far as environmental sensitivity is concerned, the Moroccan Mediterranean coastline shows great geomorphological and dynamic diversity, and significant ecological richness in terms of flora and fauna, and presents high sensitivity and vulnerability to oil spills [60].

Morocco’s Mediterranean coast is home to natural resources that support a wide range of socio-economic activities. These play a vital role in regional and national development. The most dynamic are tourism, industry, fishing and aquaculture, and agriculture. Human activities’ expansion is also leading to a high population density and increased urbanization along the coasts. The population living by the sea is still poorly documented. According to the latest general population census conducted in 2024 [67], the total population of the two Moroccan Mediterranean regions—i.e., Tangier–Tetouan–Al Hoceima and the Oriental, as defined by the administrative division—is approximately 6.32 million inhabitants, i.e., 17.2% of Morocco’s total population. The coastal municipalities of the two regions have around 2.2 million inhabitants, or nearly 6% of the national population.

In this paper, to assess the state of coastal health by using an ecosystem approach, 120 sites located along the Moroccan Mediterranean coast were selected. These sites were selected because they are representative of the natural and anthropogenic characteristics of the Moroccan Mediterranean coast and cover the various sources of impact that affect it. Some sites are among the most popular and most frequented during the summer period, while others are more natural and preserved, reflecting the dynamics of site frequentation and its effects on the health of the coastline. The selection was also made to cover the entire length of the coastline. In addition, the selected sites all cover the five typologies of coastal sites—remote, rural, village, urban, and resort—as defined by the classification of Williams and Micallef [68], thus allowing a complete and balanced analysis of the coastline studied. The sites were also classified according to three types of coasts: cliffed, clastic, and delta. Their state of health was assessed on the basis of an evaluation grid following the coastal health approach [45].

3. Methods

The coastal health approach [45] is a new and innovative tool devoted to coastal management from an ecosystem perspective (Figure 2). This approach makes it possible to diagnose the state of health of the coastline and to classify coasts according to their ecological degradation, i.e., to measure the damage caused to coastal ecosystems and to raise awareness of the overall effect of human interventions on natural ecosystems. To assess the health of the Moroccan Mediterranean coastline, the methodological approach developed by Cooper and Jackson [45] was adopted and applied to 120 coastal sites. This is an expert assessment approach that involves a rapid examination of the state of coastal systems and a descriptive tool focusing on the physical integrity of the coastline and the functioning of the system. The principle of this approach is to identify the degree of anthropogenic interventions and to classify coasts according to the impact of these interventions on their ability to function naturally, i.e., to adapt and respond to dynamic forces and natural changes. Moreover, unlike the majority of coastal system vulnerability assessments, which adopt an anthropocentric perspective focusing exclusively on the risks to human assets and interests, this new alternative approach assesses the damage caused by humans to the coastal ecosystem, representing a new concept of coastal management from an ecosystem perspective and a proper tool for coastal public managers.

The assessment approach uses medical terminology to define coastal health status by defining five categories (Figure 2): (1) “Good Health”, with two subdivisions (1a) “Health Warning” and (1b) “Surface Wounds”; (2) “Minor Injury”; (3) “Major Injury”; (4) “On Life Support”; and (5) “Deceased”. The use of this classification makes it possible to describe the evolution of a coastal system, moving from a functional state that does not require curative care to a system considered to be dead/non-functional. These categories show the extent to which human intervention disrupts or limits the natural functioning of coastal systems. To shed light on this concept, Cooper and Jackson [45] proposed an assessment grid with a fuller description for each category from cliffed (active soft or hard rock cliffs), clastic (sand or gravel beaches with/without inactive cliffs, barriers, and headland–embayment coasts), and delta (river sediment deposition areas) coasts. In this context, for each site studied in the present paper, this evaluation grid was appropriately applied in order to classify them according to their state of health and the degree of human intervention. For more information on the evaluation grid, see the reference cited [45].

In order to make the Cooper and Jackson [45] evaluation grid operational, two main groups of indicators were defined with their own evaluation criteria (

Table A1. List of indicators defined to assess coastal health.

Indicators	Good Health (Healthy Coastal Environments, no Coastal Squeeze)	Health Warning (The Health of Coastal Environments Is Slightly Menaced, Low Coastal Squeeze)	Surface Wounds (The Health of Coastal Environments Is Menaced, Medium-Low Coastal Squeeze)	Minor Injury (Coastal Environments Are Injured, Medium-Low Coastal Squeeze)	Major Injury (Unhealthy Coastal Environments, High Coastal Squeeze)	On Life Support (Coastal Environments Heavily Affected, Very High Coastal Squeeze)	Deceased (Coastal Environments Disappeared, Very High Coastal Squeeze)
Presence in the active beach–dune system of human activities and constructions, essentially coastal protection structures and marinas/ports’ infrastructures that may constitute obstacles to the sediment transport and supply, i.e., to the natural cross- and long-shore movement of sediments and, therefore, to the natural coastal evolution	- Natural and unimpeded system; sediment moves freely; supports adjacent systems. - Fully self-sustaining system. - No structures at all, coast with no armoring. Example: Natural area free of structures, KwaZulu-Natal Coast, South Africa.	- Future risks identified, but the system still operates. - No structures at all or very small structures/interventions, cross- and long-shore transports still work. - Very low armoring. Example: A pier slightly affecting alongshore transport, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia.	- Minor intervention in the past (e.g., former dune mining, abandoned infrastructure), no permanent disruption. - No structures at all or very small structures/interventions, cross- and long-shore transports still work. - Very low level of coastal armoring. Example: Small groins partially stabilize the beach but do not completely stop longshore transport, Balanegra Beach, Almeria, Spain.	- Noticeable modifications affecting sediment movement; partly recoverable. - Few structures/interventions but alongshore transport could be recovered by sand bypass or by reducing the size of the structure. - Low level of armoring. Example: Groin stopping alongshore transport, Puerto Banus. Marbella, Spain.	- Major disruption of sediment dynamics, causing natural system breakdown. - Many structures that totally interrupt longshore transport, the system turns into a swash-aligned coast. - Medium–high level of armoring. Example: Breakwaters and groins interrupt coastal longshore transport and sediment dynamics at Donnalucata, Ragusa, Italy.	- Sediment flow maintained only by constant replenishment (e.g., artificial nourishment). - Many structures and a totally swash-aligned area that has to be artificially filled. - High level of armoring. Example: Eroding beach that needs continuous nourishment works and groins to retain the placed sand, Golden Mile Beach, Durban, South Africa.	- Natural system no longer exists; replaced by artificial elements. - Many structures and no beaches at all, totally armored coast. - System fully replaced with concrete or infrastructure; natural function lost. - Coast totally armored. Example: Cliffed coastal stretch protected by a rip-rap revetment, San Vito Chietino, Abruzzo, Italy.
Presence in the area behind the beach–dune system of human settlements and activities. Such activities/structures could potentially affect in a near future the natural coastal evolution	- No urbanization; remote areas. - No agricultural or recreational pressure; coast remains natural. - Human activity >1 km from the coastline. Example: Natural area free of human activities/settlements, Bay of Ieranto, Naples, Italy.	- Planned developments or small rural/village areas close to the coast. - Tourism/agriculture planned or minimal; future threat possible. - Human activity ≥100 m from the coastline. Example: Human settlements far from the coastline, Hole Beach, Balneario Camboriu, Brazil.	- Some village developments visible, but on a limited scale. - Agriculture or recreational pressure. - Human activities/settlements between 100 and 50 m from the coastline. Example: Agricultural activities close to the coastline, but no human settlements are observed, Happisburgh Beach, Norwich, UK.	- Village/urban pressure close to the coast may be affected in future by erosion processes and therefore stop natural coastal trend; - Human activity between 50 and 100 m from the coastline; a narrow buffer zone is still present. - Medium-High coastal squeeze. Example: Urban development close to the coast may be impacted by erosion processes in the future, Palm Beach, Queensland, Australia.	- Large urban areas with a direct impact on the coastline environments, the coast is not able to migrate landward. - The only coastal system is a narrow beach and/or a rocky coast; loss of original biodiversity. - Human activity between 50 m and the coastline; no buffer zone. Example: Very urbanized area on the top of a slightly retreating basaltic cliff, Aci Castello, Sicily, Italy.	- Dense built-up environment, the coast is not able to migrate landward. - The only natural system is a beach that is artificially nourished (low biodiversity). - Distance from the shoreline depends on engineering or artificial forms. Example: Very urbanized area in front of a beach that is maintained by continuous nourishment works, Benidorm, Alicante, Spain.	- Fully urbanized coast; ecosystem functions lost. - No natural ecosystems, just artificial structures. - Human activities on the coastal zone itself. Example: Urbanized area in a very retreating coast with no protection structures, Monitos, Monteria, Colombia.

). These two groups of indicators are (i) the presence of human structures, essentially coastal protection structures and ports or marina infrastructures in the active beach–dune system, and (ii) the presence of human settlements and activities such as urbanization, agriculture, recreational development, etc., in the coastal zone. These indicators make it possible to determine the state of health of the sites by identifying the different categories of coastal health according to the degree of human intervention and to highlight to local managers the sites that require particular attention and in-depth investigations. Furthermore, the systematic use of these indicators allows for proper judgment and reproducible assessment of the state of health of the sites studied according to clearly defined criteria.

To assess coastal health at 120 selected sites along the Moroccan Mediterranean coast, field visits were carried out, and each site was subject to an expert assessment. All the sites were assessed in the same way, except for some remote sites with difficult access, which were assessed by remote sensing; such places were, in any case, wild and devoid of any human intervention. The sites were examined by visual inspection of their natural and anthropogenic characteristics according to the evaluation grid adopted and the two groups of indicators used. In the majority of cases, the status of the two main indicators was identical, as they usually evolve in parallel, i.e., an urbanized coastal area that suffers erosion is usually protected by hard structures. However, if the state of health of a site is classified in one category for the first indicator and in another for the second, the final health category chosen corresponds to the more unfavorable of the two, because the site shows a certain degree of deterioration or dysfunction in certain aspects. For instance, if a site is classified in the “Minor Injury” category for the first indicator and in the “Major Injury” category for the second indicator, the final category will be “Major Injury”.

In this way, for example, for the Tangier municipal site, the evaluation of the first indicator highlighted significant disruption of sediment dynamics caused by the presence of numerous protective structures and port and marine infrastructures. The second indicator highlighted the presence of a large urban area and intensive occupation of the backshore with a direct impact on the coastline, accompanied by anthropogenic activities. Both indicators classified the site in the “Major Injury” category. To reduce inconsistencies and individual subjectivity, each site was examined in parallel and independently by the first two authors, and in case of contradiction, the site indicators were revised by the last two authors, as experts in the field.

4. Results

Based on the assessment of the state of health of the Moroccan Mediterranean coastline, each of the 120 sites studied was classified in one of the five coastal health categories: 38 sites (32%) were classified in the “Good Health” category; 35 sites (29%) in the “Health Warning” and 11 sites (9%) in the “Surface Wounds” subdivisions; 14 sites (12%) in each of the “Minor Injury” and “Major Injury” categories; no sites (0%) in the “On Life Support” category and 8 sites (7%) in the “Deceased” category (

Table A2. Coastal health and location of study sites along the Moroccan Mediterranean coast.

N°	Site	Type	Coastal Health Category	Geographic Coordinates
1	Zahani	Rock coast	Good health	35°47′58.64″ N	5°50′49.32″ O
2	Marqala	Rock coast	Minor Injury	35°47′39.25″ N	5°50′3.84″ O
3	Lalla Jamila	Clastic coast	Deceased	35°47′32.24″ N	5°49′11.44″ O
4	Tangier Municipal	Clastic coast	Major Injury	35°46′43.27″ N	5°47′50.27″ O
5	Tangier Malabata	Clastic coast	Major Injury	35°46′40.48″ N	5°46′42.59″ O
6	Ghandouri	Clastic coast	Major Injury	35°47′17.90″ N	5°45′39.57″ O
7	Mrisat	Clastic coast	Good health	35°47′58.64″ N	5°45′3.45″ O
8	Playa Blanca	Rock coast	Health warning	35°49′28.04″ N	5°45′3.45″ O
9	Sidi Kankouche 1	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°49′46.36″ N	5°42′26.27″ O
10	Sidi Kankouche 2	Clastic coast	Good health	35°49′53.81″ N	5°42′4.29″ O
11	Oued Aliane	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°49′38.94″ N	5°38′57.67″ O
12	Dikki	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°49′55.95″ N	5°35′31.64″ O
13	Zahara	Clastic coast	Surface Wounds	35°50′9.40″ N	5°34′54.54″ O
14	Ksar Sghir	Clastic coast	Major Injury	35°50′40.13″ N	5°33′20.06″ O
15	Oued Rmel	Clastic coast	Deceased	35°53′15.42″ N	5°29′46.04″ O
16	Dalya	Clastic coast	Minor Injury	35°54′19.55″ N	5°28′36.24″ O
17	Oued El Marsa	Clastic coast	Good health	35°54′14.22″ N	5°26′37.35″ O
18	Belyounech 2	Rock coast	Surface Wounds	35°54′40.09″ N	5°23′49.31″ O
19	Belyounech 1	Clastic coast	Minor Injury	35°54′33.51″ N	5°23′36.13″ O
20	Fnideq	Clastic coast	Deceased	35°51′2.67″ N	5°21′4.84″ O
21	Rifienne	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°48′31.48″ N	5°21′4.63″ O
22	Almina	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°47′30.64″ N	5°20′58.81″ O
23	Restinga	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°45′54.96″ N	5°20′44.10″ O
24	Marina Smir	Clastic coast	Minor Injury	35°44′56.25″ N	5°20′32.63″ O
25	Kabila	Clastic coast	Minor Injury	35°43′36.69″ N	5°20′16.36″ O
26	M’Diq	Clastic coast	Major Injury	35°41′0.91″ N	5°19′11.78″ O
27	Cabo Negro 1	Rock coast	Minor Injury	35°40′5.91″ N	5°16′59.62″ O
28	Cabo Negro 2	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°38′41.72″ N	5°16′44.37″ O
29	Martil	Clastic coast	Surface Wounds	35°37′32.40″ N	5°16′20.80″ O
30	Martil Diza	Clastic coast	Minor Injury	35°36′33.84″ N	5°16′5.50″ O
31	Sidi Abdeslam	Clastic coast	Good health	35°35′25.63″ N	5°15′39.90″ O
32	Azla promenade	Rock coast	Deceased	35°33′42.43″ N	5°14′51.41″ O
33	Azla Beach	Clastic coast	Surface Wounds	35°33′5.39″ N	5°14′30.98″ O
34	Amsa	Clastic coast	Surface Wounds	35°32′26.80″ N	5°13′4.04″ O
35	Tamrabet	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°32′11.50″ N	5°11′42.01″ O
36	Tamernout	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°31′39.56″ N	5°10′18.30″ O
37	Aouchtam	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°30′24.02″ N	5°9′17.31″ O
38	Yellow Rock Beach	Rock coast	Good health	35°28′48.63″ N	5°6′52.47″ O
39	Oued Laou-Mekkad	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°28′25.55″ N	5°6′16.93″ O
40	Oued Laou-Center	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°27′56.38″ N	5°5′58.68″ O
41	Kaa Asrass	Clastic coast	Surface Wounds	35°24′27.29″ N	5°3′44.35″ O
42	Targha	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°23′40.01″ N	5°0′36.16″ O
43	Azenti	Clastic coast	Good health	35°22′28.14″ N	4°59′17.93″ O
44	Stehat 2	Clastic coast	Good health	35°21′32.48″ N	4°58′1.19″ O
45	Stehat 1	Clastic coast	Surface Wounds	35°20′41.84″ N	4°57′8.25″ O
46	Chmaala	Clastic coast	Minor Injury	35°19′51.45″ N	4°56′19.02″ O
47	Sidi Yahya Aarab	Clastic coast	Minor Injury	35°18′1.41″ N	4°52′47.61″ O
48	Jnan Nich Islands	Rock coast	Good health	35°17′49.20″ N	4°51′44.49″ O
49	Jnan Nich Beach	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°17′2.33″ N	4°50′59.65″ O
50	Aarkoub	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°16′11.97″ N	4°50′1.98″ O
51	Amtar	Clastic coast	Surface Wounds	35°14′25.02″ N	4°47′7.97″ O
52	Taghassa	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°13′19.10″ N	4°43′56.82″ O
53	Rouiss	Clastic coast	Good health	35°12′36.29″ N	4°42′0.33″ O
54	Jebha-Port	Rock coast	Deceased	35°12′19.60″ N	4°40′23.47″ O
55	Jebha-Maresdar	Rock coast	Good health	35°12′35.42″ N	4°39′29.64″ O
56	Jebha-El Hwad	Clastic coast	Good health	35°12′26.32″ N	4°38′43.45″ O
57	Takmout	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°11′15.21″ N	4°36′8.86″ O
58	Sidi Ftouh	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°10′30.63″ N	4°31′11.51″ O
59	Mestassa	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°9′16.52″ N	4°25′45.88″ O
60	Cala Iris	Rock coast	Major Injury	35°8′52.89″ N	4°21′37.35″ O
61	Torres Alcala	Rock coast	Good health	35°9′26.93″ N	4°19′38.68″ O
62	Bades	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°10′13.48″ N	4°17′42.12″ O
63	Tigzirin	Rock coast	Good health	35°11′15.02″ N	4°12′45.48″ O
64	Boumeksoud	Rock coast	Good health	35°11′52.18″ N	4°10′34.58″ O
65	Thikkit	Rock coast	Good health	35°11′55.92″ N	4°8′25.22″ O
66	Taoussarte	Rock coast	Good health	35°13′10.07″ N	4°5′9.37″ O
67	Boussekour	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°14′0.31″ N	4°2′3.27″ O
68	Boumehdi	Rock coast	Good health	35°13′59.57″ N	4°0′47.85″ O
69	Tala Youssef	Clastic coast	Major Injury	35°14′16.56″ N	3°58′32.29″ O
70	Rmod	Rock coast	Major Injury	35°14′36.78″ N	3°57′57.25″ O
71	Izdhi	Rock coast	Major Injury	35°14′43.10″ N	3°57′46.49″ O
72	Sabadia	Clastic coast	Major Injury	35°14′57.25″ N	3°57′14.81″ O
73	Quemado	Clastic coast	Major Injury	35°14′40.22″ N	3°55′34.33″ O
74	Matadero	Clastic coast	Surface Wounds	35°14′11.88″ N	3°55′23.95″ O
75	Cala Bonita	Clastic coast	Surface Wounds	35°14′4.14″ N	3°55′22.78″ O
76	Isli	Clastic coast	Good health	35°13′9.89″ N	3°54′45.99″ O
77	Sfiha	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°12′37.46″ N	3°54′0.10″ O
78	Souani Al Hoceima	Clastic coast	Good health	35°11′57.82″ N	3°51′48.76″ O
79	Souani Driouch	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°12′1.76″ N	3°48′51.26″ O
80	R’Hach	Clastic coast	Surface Wounds	35°13′6.71″ N	3°46′30.91″ O
81	Ifri Ithbiran	Rock coast	Good health	35°16′25.62″ N	3°44′34.34″ O
82	Hrizou	Rock coast	Good health	35°17′4.45″ N	3°40′47.66″ O
83	Agharabo Yarzan	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°15′32.05″ N	3°38′53.88″ O
84	Sidi Driss	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°13′53.18″ N	3°35′57.31″ O
85	Sidi Salah	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°13′4.14″ N	3°32′23.46″ O
86	Sidi Amer O Moussa	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°11′59.16″ N	3°29′30.21″ O
87	Sidi Hssaine	Clastic coast	Minor Injury	35°11′49.18″ N	3°26′33.52″ O
88	Chaabi	Rock coast	Good health	35°11′6.14″ N	3°20′54.80″ O
89	Ghansou	Rock coast	Good health	35°12′1.36″ N	3°18′29.38″ O
90	Sidi Boussaid	Rock coast	Good health	35°12′36.56″ N	3°16′28.31″ O
91	Ifri Ifounassen	Rock coast	Major Injury	35°13′17.15″ N	3°13′55.71″ O
92	Boundouha	Clastic coast	Major Injury	35°13′25.13″ N	3°12′4.21″ O
93	El-Kallat	Clastic coast	Good health	35°15′42.72″ N	3°8′56.95″ O
94	Sidi Lehsen	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°16′20.90″ N	3°6′17.28″ O
95	Playa de las Japonesas	Rock coast	Good health	35°17′58.17″ N	3°3′47.46″ O
96	Marsa Yawyan	Rock coast	Good health	35°18′28.87″ N	3°3′22.34″ O
97	Charrana 1	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°23′22.69″ N	3°0′29.49″ O
98	Charrana 2	Clastic coast	Good health	35°23′56.24″ N	3°0′12.56″ O
99	Cape Three Forks	Rock coast	Good health	35°26′18.81″ N	2°58′21.64″ O
100	Tibouda	Rock coast	Health warning	35°25′22.28″ N	2°57′15.94″ O
101	Tibouda 2	Rock coast	Health warning	35°25′4.85″ N	2°57′41.40″ O
102	Mina Rosita	Clastic coast	Good health	35°24′21.01″ N	2°57′40.66″ O
103	Cala Blanca	Rock coast	Good health	35°21′20.84″ N	2°57′53.94″ O
104	Miami	Clastic coast	Major Injury	35°15′43.79″ N	2°55′15.37″ O
105	Boqueronesa West	Clastic coast	Good health	35°14′14.07″ N	2°53′41.43″ O
106	Boqueronesa East	Clastic coast	Minor Injury	35°12′55.95″ N	2°52′9.71″ O
107	Nador City	Clastic coast	Deceased	35°10′41.30″ N	2°55′13.82″ O
108	Al Mouhandis	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°9′34.71″ N	2°47′46.67″ O
109	Taourirt	Clastic coast	Good health	35°7′51.55″ N	2°45′29.68″ O
110	Kariat Arekmane	Clastic coast	Health warning	35°6′54.95″ N	2°43′12.46″ O
111	Blue Eye Beach	Clastic coast	Deceased	35°6′38.42″ N	2°42′31.36″ O
112	Jorf Arroum	Rock coast	Good health	35°6′2.28″ N	2°41′12.11″ O
113	El Jamai	Rock coast	Health warning	35°5′12.85″ N	2°37′19.65″ O
114	Sidi El Bachir	Rock coast	Good health	35°5′16.87″ N	2°31′45.86″ O
115	Red Beach	Rock coast	Good health	35°6′10.50″ N	2°29′6.48″ O
116	Ras El Ma	Clastic coast	Minor Injury	35°8′25.24″ N	2°24′54.13″ O
117	Kamkoum El Baz	Clastic coast	Good health	35°7′56.66″ N	2°23′26.64″ O
118	Mouth of Oued Moulouya	Delta coast	Deceased	35°7′18.38″ N	2°20′0.41″ O
119	Saïdia Med East	Clastic coast	Minor Injury	35°6′21.45″ N	2°17′2.88″ O
120	Saïdia	Clastic coast	Minor Injury	35°5′13.66″ N	2°13′30.63″ O

, Figure 3 and Figure 4). The sites were classified as clastic (70%) and cliffed (29%) site types, with 1% classified as deltaic sites (Figure 3 and Figure 4). To provide a concrete illustration of the coastal health approach, this section describes and graphically presents a number of examples of coastal sites along the Moroccan Mediterranean coast (Figure 5 and Figure 6). The different categories recorded along the study coast are described in the following lines.

• “Good Health” Category

Along the Moroccan Mediterranean coast, 38 (i.e., 32%) of the sites examined were classified in the “Good Health” category (Figure 3). These sites are divided between 22 rocky coasts and 16 clastic coasts (Figure 4). This category includes natural, often isolated sites, where the coastline still retains its wild and aesthetic aspect. At such sites, natural aspects, especially geological and geomorphological features, clearly predominate over anthropic ones, i.e., they show minimal or non-existent human influence and occupation. These sites, e.g., Maresdar, Mrisat, Isli, Cala Blanca, etc., are located in different geographical areas of the Moroccan Mediterranean coast, sometimes in protected areas such as SIBEs (Sites of Biological and Ecological Interest), nature reserves, and national parks.

An example of a site considered in “Good Health” is the Bay of Tangier, located near the Strait of Gibraltar at the northwestern edge of the Moroccan Mediterranean coast: it forms a beautiful semi-circular concavity facing north, with golden sandy beaches fed by the sedimentary supplies of small rivers (Figure 5). Two types of coast characterize the bay’s coastline: a sandy west coast and a rocky east coast, occasionally interrupted by sandy beaches. On the eastern side, just before Cap Malabata, the site of Mrisat appears with a beach of golden sand and rocks, enclosed by coastal cliffs (Figure 5). This part of the coast still retains its wild and natural aspect in an environment devoid of human occupation.

In the northern central part of the Moroccan Mediterranean coast (Figure 6) is the Bay of Al Hoceima, which, with a length of 40 km and more than 15 km of beaches, is one of the largest bays in the Mediterranean Sea. It shows a sandy coast in the central part characterized by the presence of rivers that are the primary sources of sediment supply, and a rocky coast in the western and eastern ends. The middle part of Al Hoceima Bay, i.e., the Isli site, with a coastal stretch of > 4 km (Figure 6), was in “Good Health”: it maintains its wild and natural character in an environment free from any kind of human occupation/structure able to hinder coastal processes. Within the Bay of Al Hoceima is also observed the Souani Al Hoceima site, a “Good Health” coastal system characterized by a wild beach of grey to black sand with relevant natural, aesthetic, and environmental aspects, i.e., the presence of two large river mouths and a dense forest in the hinterland.

• “Health Warning” Category

Along the study area, 35 sites (i.e., 29%) were classified in the “Health Warning” category (Figure 3). These sites are divided into 4 rocky and 31 clastic coastal sites (Figure 4). This category includes sites that are virtually natural but have been marked by some degree of human occupation or activity on the edge of an active coastal system, such as sites at Playa Blanca, Sfiha, Bades, etc.

Playa Blanca is close to Cap Malabata (Figure 5), a small natural coast surrounded by cliffs occupied by a number of unattractive stepped buildings. The constructions located at the foot of the cliff or on the cliff itself constitute an immediate obstacle to its present and future natural evolution that depends on the adaptation measures that will be taken by local managers; therefore, this site has been classified in the “Health Warning” category.

The Sfiha site offers a black sandy beach and a multitude of islands close to the beach (Figure 6). The upper part of the beach is mainly occupied by well-developed sand dunes, with a fairly dense eucalyptus reforestation. However, a significant part of the beach is occupied by large-scale seaside tourist facilities (promenade, restaurants, cafes, clubs, etc.). These developments have been built to the detriment of the coastal dunes and on the edge of an active coastal system, hindering the long-term evolution of the coast and, therefore, its classification within the “Health Warning” category.

• “Surface Wounds” Category

A total of 11 (i.e., 9%) out of 120 sites were classified in the “Surface Wounds” category (Figure 3), distributed between 1 rocky and 10 clastic sites (Figure 4). They have been modified by human interventions, in particular by activities such as agriculture or the creation of recreational areas, e.g., at Belyounech 2, Amsa, Cala Bonita, R’Hach, etc., or show visible traces of previous damage due to the exploitation and dredging of the dunes (e.g., Martil). Such alterations do not lead to malfunctions, allowing the system to continue operating.

On the Al Hoceima coastline, “Surface Wounds” were observed in two coves, Cala Bonita and Matadero (Figure 6). Human intervention is evident, and a large part of the coast has been modified and occupied by recreational areas and a small promenade, resulting in an increasing reduction in beach width, a significant loss of local wildlife habitats, an influence on natural coastal processes, and a future threat to the coastal system. This alteration has not only diminished the ecological value of the coast but has also raised concerns about the long-term sustainability of the coastal environment.

In the R’Hach site (Figure 6), the backshore is now recording an emergent dynamism. Agricultural activities and built developments are becoming increasingly significant, gradually competing with the natural areas that previously abounded. The intensification of agriculture is gradually spreading to the point of encroaching on the beach itself, which is becoming increasingly narrow, producing a change in the natural coastal processes. Consequently, the coastline falls into the category of “Surface Wounds”. Indeed, the installation of anthropogenic protection structures in the future would classify it in the category of “Major Injury”, while a natural landward migration of the coast could favor its partial recuperation.

• “Minor Injury” Category

Along the Moroccan Mediterranean coast, 14 sites (i.e., 12%) were classified in the “Minor Injury” category (Figure 3). These sites are divided into 2 rocky and 12 clastic coastal sites (Figure 4). They are marked by human intervention that, in some cases, has altered the morphology of the coastline by reducing sediment input due to the presence of small-scale protection structures where the coastal system does not function in a natural way. At most of these sites, interventions took the form of a groin, jetty, or a small harbor, which interrupted the flow of sediment—thus affecting the health of the coastline. Examples are Marqala, Dalya, Marina Smir, etc.

Marqala, located in the western part of the Bay of Tangier (Figure 5), constitutes a coastline comprising a small triangular-shaped beach bordered by high, gently sloping cliffs and a vast rocky platform. Hard protective structures are observed along the right-hand edge of the beach, protecting the promenade, the boulevard, and the bathing facilities. This stretch of coastline presents different levels of development and is presently facing relevant environmental challenges. Anthropogenic structures influence natural coastal processes, interrupting and limiting the supply of sediments and, therefore, affecting the beach’s sedimentary budget and the functioning of the ecosystem. The restoration of natural dynamics by mitigating the effects of the existing protective structures is required. This part of the coast was classified within the “Minor Injury” category because the coastal system at this level continues to function despite this “injury”, but with a different form and rate of change.

• “Major Injury” Category

Along the study area, 14 sites (i.e., 12%) were classified in the “Major Injury” category (Figure 3). These sites are divided between 4 rocky and 10 clastic coastal sites (Figure 4). Their coastal health status has been seriously damaged by human intervention to a potentially fatal extent. Numerous large-scale protection structures were observed along these sites including jetties, groins, dykes, seawalls, etc. These structures, in addition to the almost total occupation of the backshore, have led to a reduction in the sediment supply and a lowering and narrowing of the beach. Examples are Tangier, Ghandouri, Sabadia, Miami, etc.

The Bay of Tangier is characterized by three main clastic coastal sectors: Tangier Municipal, Tangier Malabata, and Ghandouri (Figure 5). The presence of anthropogenic activities and structures—such as the port of Marina, the intensive urbanization of the beach dominated by tall buildings, as well as the installation of hard protection structures (groins, breakwaters, dykes, riprap, seawalls, etc.)—disrupt the transport of sediments and hinder the future migration of the coast. The creation of the port began with the construction of a 300-meter-long jetty. Over time, several port expansion projects have been carried out and profoundly altered the propagation of the swell coming from the west to north-west, disrupting sediment transport and immobilizing sand materials, which no longer contribute to the current solid supply. This succession of developments disrupted the sediment balance and changed the geomorphological characteristics of the previous, natural coastal system. Furthermore, two large groins and a breakwater have been installed to the east of the bay to protect the seaside infrastructure. Such protection structures have interrupted the westward drift, which redistributes the pebbles brought by local rivers (“oueds”). Such inputs, immobilized between the breakwater and the groin, no longer play a role in sediment dynamics, which accentuates the degradation of the sediment stock in the bay [69]. As a result, the western beach, which no longer benefits from the sediment transported by the natural drift, will become progressively more vulnerable. The destabilization of the sedimentary transport and the depletion of the sedimentary stock make the bay evolve in a closed system. Unfortunately, this transformation and the evolution of this part of the coastline have led to the permanent fixation of a large part of the beach, which is classified in the “Major Injury” category.

At the western end of the Bay of Al Hoceima, a clastic coast (headland–embayment) marks the coastline, i.e., the site of Quemado (Figure 6). It is characterized by a short sandy beach of less than 400 m, located at the foot of a line of high, vertical limestone cliffs of contrasting colors, covered with abundant natural vegetation. Quemado is also characterized by the presence of a large port in its northern part, which has a significant impact on the local environmental quality. Numerous protection structures have been installed to protect the port. These protection structures have isolated the beach and prevented the cliff from retreating. In addition, the backshore has been occupied by a large seaside tourist complex and, as a result, a significant part of the beach has been lost. Therefore, the beach is now quite narrow, i.e., ranges from 5 to 50 m, and more vulnerable to coastal erosion as it is not able to dissipate wave energy in an effective way. This accentuates erosion at the foot of the cliff and major landslides.

• “Deceased” Category

Along the Moroccan Mediterranean coast, eight sites (i.e., 7%) were classified in the “Deceased” category (Figure 3). These sites are divided into five clastic sites, two rocky sites, and one delta site (Figure 4). In most of these sites, the natural coastal system has been eliminated to the point that the beach has disappeared and been covered with concrete to build a road or promenade, or to install a port. Often, recently emplaced coastal infrastructures had to be protected by hard protection structures, such as at Lalla Jamila, Oued Rmel, Nador City, etc.

At the right and left edges of the Bay of Tangier, there are two sites classified as “Deceased”: Lala Jamila and a small part of the Ghandouri site known as “Borj” (Figure 5). At these sites, a total stretch of 2.8 km of coastline is bordered by protection structures located immediately on the seafront to protect property and seaside infrastructures at risk. The local sedimentary system has been totally destroyed and, consequently, the entire natural coastal system has been lost.

5. Discussion

In light of the results obtained, an analysis of the percentages of coastal health categories along the Moroccan Mediterranean coast shows that only 32% of the sites studied fall into the “Good Health” category (Figure 3). Indeed, the considerable percentage of sites in the “Health Warning”, “Surface Wounds”, “Minor Injury”, “Major Injury” and “Deceased” (i.e., 68%) categories clearly reflects the degree of degradation and loss of coastal ecosystems as a result of the poor coastal management practices and coastal impossibility in responding to the present and future environmental changes.

The present state of health of the Moroccan Mediterranean coastline is mainly attributed to three factors: (i) previous coastal geomorphological characteristics and evolution; (ii) the level of human occupation (including the degree of urbanization and the emplacement of hard structures); and (iii) the socio-economic activities that take place there.

Morocco’s Mediterranean coastline presents a great diversity of environments and suffers from a high rate of erosion. According to a World Bank report [70], the annual erosion rate on the Moroccan Mediterranean coast is 0.14 m, a high figure that is double the world average value (0.07 m/year). According to a survey carried out by the Ministry of Energy, Mines, Water and the Environment [71] in Morocco on 47 Mediterranean and Atlantic beaches, 7 have disappeared and 16 have suffered intense erosion. Throughout the study area, there is a direct relationship between coastal erosion and the deterioration of coastal health, insofar as the sites classified in the lower health categories are characterized by a degraded landscape essentially due to high erosion rates. Deterioration in the health of the coastline is exacerbated and often multiplied by human activities, in particular the inappropriate construction of protective structures. According to a report by the Ministry of Energy Transition and Sustainable Development [72] on the artificialization of the coast, the natural coastline extends over approximately 477 km, i.e., 76.5% of the total length, while the artificial coastline represents almost 146 km, i.e., 23.5% of the total length, which includes numerous hard anthropogenic structures such as ports and marinas (54%), dykes and revetments (37%), jetties (5%), groins (2%), river mouth structures (2%), and breakwaters (<1%).

Along the Moroccan Mediterranean coastline, the management and control of coastal erosion have been largely based on the hard protection approach. The hardening of the coast was carried out without taking into account other, softer protection solutions. Today, the problems caused by coastal protection structures are increasingly evident in coastal ecosystems. This is partly reflected in their impact on coastal health, the aesthetic quality of the coastal landscape [61,62], and coastal dynamics. Indeed, setting up protection structures is not necessarily the best management measure as these structures, which emplacement is based on financial criteria, are never built up to protect the coastal environment or coastal ecosystem services, but with the primary objective of protecting assets and infrastructures at risk (buildings, roads, tourist infrastructures, etc.) [73].

In a relatively short period, the Moroccan Mediterranean coast has undergone a rapid and profound transformation, mainly due to the influx of immigrants from the interior of the country. This phenomenon, which began in recent decades, continues to progress at a steady pace. According to the administrative division, the area is divided into regions, each comprising several municipalities. According to estimates, between 2014 and 2024, the annual population growth rate was 1.26% for the Tangier-Tetouan-Al Hoceima region, only 0.09% for the Oriental region, and 1.48% for the coastal municipalities of both regions. In this paper, the rate was therefore calculated for the two regions that have access to the Mediterranean, and the rate was also calculated in the municipalities of these two regions that have access to the Mediterranean. On the other hand, the urbanization rate was almost the same, reaching 65.5% [67,74]. Furthermore, the increase in population along the coast has had a significant influence on coastal geomorphology since it required even more rigorous interventions, essentially hard protective measures, to protect property and infrastructure at risk. Alongside human migrations to the coasts, coastal development has also grown steadily. This growth has been accompanied by a boom in socio-economic activities linked to the maritime area and the exploitation of natural resources, such as tourism, fishing, agriculture, etc.

In 2024, Morocco welcomed 17.4 million tourists, recording an increase of 20% compared to 2023. This data reinforces its position as the leading tourist destination in Africa. The country also recorded 28,705,914 overnight stays, including just over 3,200,000 on Morocco’s Mediterranean coast, i.e., approximately 11.2% of the total. Within this sector, seaside tourism accounts for almost 87% of tourism activity, which plays an important role in the country’s economic and financial structure. The majority of visitors come from Mediterranean countries, the main ones being France and Spain, as well as from the United Kingdom [75].

Concerning the fishing sector, in 2023, Moroccan coastal and artisanal fishing production reached around 1.3 million tons. Of this total, 16,980 tons were recorded on the Mediterranean coast, representing almost 13% of the national production. Aquaculture production on the same coast amounts to 557 tons. The fishing fleet operating on the Moroccan Mediterranean coast comprises 507 coastal fishing fleets and 2991 artisanal, local fishing units [76]. The agricultural sector plays an indisputable economic and social role, representing approximately 38% of total national employment in 2024 [77]. According to statistics for the same year, in the coastal zone, the useful agricultural area represents 1,865,636 ha, or 17.38% of the total area of the Moroccan Mediterranean region, and forests account for 3,111,916 ha, or 29% of the total surface area [78]. However, the primary sectors (agriculture, fishing, and forestry) play a central role in the economy of the study area, contributing almost 12% to the gross domestic product (GDP) and employing more than 33% of the active population.

On the economic level, the geostrategic position of the Moroccan Mediterranean coastline, thanks to the Strait of Gibraltar, which is one of the busiest shipping lanes in the world, implies intense maritime traffic, with more than 100,000 ships passing through every year, i.e., more than 300 a day. To benefit from this dynamic and take advantage of this demand, Mediterranean countries, including Morocco, are always trying to strengthen and develop their port infrastructures. Unfortunately, these coastal activities, as well as the occupation of maritime spaces, are developing to the detriment of the health of the coast by destroying coastal systems. Such a loss of coastline and its natural functions is a real problem, in which the health of the coastline is ignored in favor of human activities. The Moroccan Mediterranean coast has 17 ports, divided into 4 commercial ports, including the port of Tangier Med, the largest port in Africa, 10 fishing ports, and 3 marinas [79]. Ports, regardless of their location, have a significant influence on erosion mechanisms because they particularly affect the longitudinal movement of sediments [80]. In addition, ports lead to the artificialization and stabilization of the coastline and, therefore, the degradation or total loss of active coastal systems.

Morocco has a set of legislation of capital importance, constituting largely adequate and appropriate legal and institutional tools for better preservation and management of coastal areas [47]. One of the most important legal tools and the principal legislative and regulatory framework for coastal preservation adopted is Law No. 81-12 of 2015. It aims, in particular, to regulate construction activities, prevent and reduce pollution and coastal degradation by rehabilitating polluted and damaged areas, and develop national and regional plans for Integrated Coastal Management (ICZM) actions. This law lays down fundamental principles such as the establishment of a minimum 100 m non-buildable strip extending landward from the upper limit of the shoreline, which can be increased in case of coastal retreat, and a prohibition on the creation of new coastal roads within 2 km of the shoreline. These principles are very important for the protection of coastal health and are part of an integrated management framework that takes into account the coastal ecosystem. With the adoption of this law, Morocco has effectively implemented the ICZM approach, a significant step forward in promoting its development and conservation through responsible and sustainable management.

Different management approaches can be proposed depending on the degree of degradation.

• For sites classified in the “Good Health” category, precautionary and conservation measures must be adopted to limit and control future coastal development and related human activities while ensuring the ecological integrity of the coastline is maintained. With this in mind, management efforts must focus on preserving, protecting, and enhancing natural coastal ecosystems and the natural features specific to each site along the coast. In addition, legal protection measures should be implemented by strengthening the legal and legislative framework for coastal protection to protect the health of the coastline and ensure its resilience to environmental and human constraints in the medium and long term. Sites such as Mrisat (Figure 5), Isli (Figure 6), Maresdar, Mina Rosita, Cala Blanca, etc., can benefit from this intervention to guarantee the preservation of their state of health and their natural aspect.
• For sites classified in the “Health Warning” and “Surface Wounds” sub-categories, coastal management measures should focus on the rehabilitation of lost ecological functions and the strict application of coastal laws to prevent ongoing and future deterioration. Along the Moroccan Mediterranean coast, strict management measures were implemented in 2024 to remove constructions such as buildings, tourist facilities, and commercial projects situated < 100 m from the sea, at the foot or edge of cliffs, or within active coastal systems (Figure 7). These constructions, which do not respect the ecological requirements and the preservation of coastal systems, have been demolished. Several sites examined as part of this research, some of which fall into these sub-categories, have benefited from this operation, with over 40 buildings demolished in some instances under this initiative at Sidi Kankouch, Oued Aliane, Aouchtam, Aarkoub, Jnan Nich Beach, etc. These proactive actions are part of a broader strategy to restore the ecological balance of the coastline, protect its natural functions, and maintain its ecological integrity over the long term. Indeed, the results obtained in this study demonstrate the effectiveness of these measures at certain sites, enabling improvements in the health of the coastline and enhancing the resilience of the Moroccan Mediterranean coast against anthropogenic pressures and coastal change. However, in coastal areas that are beginning to show signs of degradation, the preservation of the coastline is a major issue. Priority must be given to the maintenance and upkeep of the coastline through soft solutions, such as coastal dune restoration, beach nourishment, etc., rather than the emplacement of hard protection structures. The installation of anthropogenic protection structures in the future, as the first solution usually used in this case, would classify these sites in the “Major Injury” category, while environmental solutions could promote the regeneration of their state of health. From a coastal health perspective, protection structures alter coastal dynamics by disrupting natural sediment transport processes, affecting the sediment budget, the size and type of sediment particles, and, consequently, beach evolution, dune growth, and erosion patterns by significantly reducing beach width. These structures result in the loss of many coastal habitats, natural vegetation cover, and biodiversity of flora and fauna [81,82]. Protection structures occupy a significant part of the coastline, a natural area and active coastal system that, together with a series of associated ecological functions, will be permanently lost. Protection structures negatively affect coastal landscapes, favor the trapping and accumulation of woody debris and marine litter, and reduce the safety and comfort of beachgoers [73]. Woody debris and litter trapped by protection structures are widely seen along the sites surveyed (Figure 8). Soft solutions play a significant role in the sustainable management of coastal areas. They offer effective protection against dynamic forces and changing coastal conditions while preserving the natural quality of beaches, increasing beach width and providing space for recreational activities, as well as maintaining many services, thus ensuring greater socio-economic benefits for society.
• For sites classified as “Minor Injury” and “Major Injury”, management efforts are enormous as managing damaged natural coastal features is a considerable challenge, and their recovery is very costly. The management of the coastline becomes very complex due to the elevated level of human occupation. Although some human aspects influencing coastal health remain difficult to manage or remove, such as a large urban area and major infrastructures, e.g., ports and road networks, etc., some aspects are manageable, such as the presence of coastal protection structures. These protective structures could be dismantled or reduced, and beach nourishment projects implemented [83] to widen the beach, increase its carrying capacity, and therefore optimize its use for recreational purposes [84]. Such a solution has already been implemented in seaside tourist areas in Italy, Spain, Cuba, etc. [83,85]. Sites such as Tangier Municipal, Tangier Malabata, Ghandouri, Marqala (Figure 5), Sabadia, Quemado (Figure 6), etc., can benefit from this intervention and significantly improve their state of health. By implementing these health initiatives, these sites can improve their physical environments and also the well-being of their local communities. Moreover, sediments deposited up-drift of the structures often give rise to widespread beaches that can be exploited elsewhere to recharge other eroding coastal sectors [86]. Although Williams et al. [83] consider the removal of protective structures a complex approach and do not always present an economic advantage on the cost/benefit ratio, it remains a feasible choice. This choice, according to Rangel-Buitrago et al. [87], becomes necessary in some cases to improve beach quality and, in particular, the coastal landscape. In the present context, to protect the health of the coastline from additional anthropogenic aggression, the strengthening of the application of coastal laws is strongly desired. This involves strict restrictions on the development of new constructions and all kinds of unnecessary or superfluous human infrastructure. This approach can be seen as the most straightforward option to avoid future deterioration of coastal health. Furthermore, it is strongly recommended to consider and adopt management strategies focused on the ecological restoration, rehabilitation, and renaturation of the coastline.
• For sites classified as “On life support” and “Deceased”, recovery may not be possible. In the most favorable situation, only partial recovery is possible, allowing the coastal system to continue to function, albeit at a reduced level [45]. From a management perspective, in such situations, artificial habitats can be established, but they usually require regular maintenance and upkeep. However, these habitats, particularly in “Deceased” coastal systems, do not replace the original ecosystems and are not examples of coastal health restoration, as they are artificial substitutes that cannot function autonomously and require ongoing care. Such an intervention could be beneficial for sites such as Lalla Jamila (Figure 5), Azla promenade, Nador City, etc., for a partial recovery of the coast, given that their systems have been lost. In any case, the “do nothing” or “abandon” option cannot ever be chosen in such cases [88].

From all the above, the complex relationship and combination between natural environments, economic activities, and the lack of appropriate public policies can lead to conflicts of use, as well as adverse ecological, social, and economic impacts. The management of a constantly changing coastline requires proactive government interventions involving both the stakeholders and the socio-economic sectors. Identifying the areas where coastal health is most at risk can help public authorities to focus and direct their management efforts and resources. In addition, examining and diagnosing the state of physical coastal systems along the shoreline can be used to identify the areas most altered, or likely to be altered, in terms of their natural functioning. This database is an important tool for identifying priority areas for coastal management, preserving natural ecosystems and their services, and guiding public decisions toward the most appropriate management measures. Such measures, which are generally focused on economic activities and the emplacement of artificial coastal protection structures, could be strengthened by integrating new criteria that take into account coastal systems and the services they provide. Whatever the case, the sustainability of coastal health depends on the preservation of environmental quality and the associated ecosystem services.

6. Conclusions

The coast offers a diversity of goods, ecological functions, and ecosystem services of great value for environmental balance and human society. The sustainability of these goods and services highlights an extremely important concept: the coastal health state. Coastal health is a complex concept based on the analysis of the ability of coastal ecosystems to continue to provide and maintain a diversity of ecosystem services, function naturally, and adapt and respond to dynamic forces and natural changes to determine the extent of human intervention. Further, coastal health is easily determined through a simple and rapid examination of how human activities affect the natural functioning of physical systems. In this paper, the coastal health approach was applied to 120 sites along the Moroccan Mediterranean coast. This approach uses medical terminology to describe the state of health of the coastline according to five categories: “Good Health”, “Minor Injury”, “Major Injury”, “On Life Support”, and “Deceased”.

The results showed that 32% of the sites surveyed were classified in the “Good Health” category (29% in the “Health Warning” and 9% in the “Surface Wounds” subcategories), 12% each in the “Minor Injury” and “Major Injury”, no sites (0%) in the “On Life Support” and 7% in the “Deceased” category. Therefore, a considerable percentage of the coastal sites studied were classified in the lower or health alert categories, due to the negative impact and pressure exerted by anthropogenic developments and infrastructures, highlighting the crucial and immediate need for careful planning and appropriate management of coastal systems. Human developments and infrastructures installed near or immediately on the coast are perceived as elements likely to disrupt the functioning of coastal ecosystems rather than as resources to be preserved.

The main objectives and priorities of coastal management strategies should focus on precautionary and conservation measures for sites classified as “Healthy”, on the rehabilitation of lost ecological functions for sites classified as “Health Warning” and “Surface Wounds”, on ecological restoration for sites classified as “Minor Injury” and “Major Injury”, and on partial recovery for sites classified as “On Life Support” and “Deceased”, seeking always a balance between economic development, the requirements of society, and the protection of coastal health. This approach should be based on sound scientific knowledge, assessment approaches, and appropriate tools. It should also focus on strengthening the legal, legislative, and institutional framework aimed at maintaining and protecting the health of the coastline, with a commitment by decision-makers and stakeholders to responsible and sustainable management as part of an integrated management approach that takes account of the environmental relevance of coastal ecosystems.