1. Introduction
Kenya is at the initial stages of developing its land information management system called
Ardhisasa (Swahili word for
land now). The system was launched in 2021 in support of the Nairobi land registry [
1]. It is expected to be developed fully for nationwide coverage and usage, providing support to several functions, including land taxation, spatial planning and tenure security, with workflows for initial data acquisition, establishment of rights, land surveying, parcel subdivision and information provision. It is prepared for use by several stakeholders such as registrars, surveyors, conveyors, valuation and spatial planning professionals, the government at both national and decentral level and the public in general. However, the system has not yet been in full use due to the need for some improvements in functionalities experienced while using it; see [
2,
3]. Conversion of land data from an analogue to digital data environment is ongoing.
Different organisations and departments dealing with land administration and land management do not have a framework for sharing their produced data with other stakeholders directly or indirectly. As was already observed by Wayumba (2013), this hinders the quick cross-referencing of records and constrains the orderly and timely updates of databases in use. In practice, this results in separated data siloed in different locations with access constrains and data duplications [
4]. As much as there have been efforts in implementing
Ardhisasa, it has not yet climaxed in the development of a comprehensive cadastral model as the parcel information contained in the existing model is only geometry information from the traditional cadastre without attributes [
5]. This means that the system only has some basic cadastral information that is not linked with the registry data.
The above indicates the need for a system that allows all users to create, add, access and manipulate data in a manner that serves their purposes efficiently, hence the need for data exchange within the system. For data exchange to be effective, there must be a standard and shared data model that is agreed upon and used by all the stakeholders involved in the collection, maintenance and distribution of the land data [
6]. Putting usable standards in place is believed to reduce data exchange costs [
7,
8]. In this case of land data, a Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) profile for Kenya is developed to facilitate this [
1]. The model should function as fully coordinated and automated, without separation of data from the land registry and cadastre [
9], while keeping their organisational mandates intact. The two should not be the limit but should allow for the access of other actors of land administration too: local government, environmental, infrastructure, spatial planning and taxation agencies and utilities, as well as the construction sector and the actors of the real estate market [
7]. The model could also accommodate the linkages of the mining cadastre with the land registry and cadastre [
9].
The integration of the land system with other external data sources, such as the judiciary, tax authorities, such as the Kenya Revenue Authority (KRA), registrar of companies and land-buying companies (brokers and investors) [
4] is important [
10]. This could be similar to the integration of the key registers in the Netherlands [
11], as shown in
Figure 1. Both geographical and non-geographical (administrative) data are defined to facilitate information exchange, which is important between the government, citizens and businesses [
12]. The linkages are determined by the information requirements of one entity to the other; for example, for vehicle registration, a resident’s address is required. However, it could have the functionality to distinguish the different institutions’ tasks and mandates and to align them with each other, all on a conceptual level [
7].
Standards and standardisation are among the foundational building blocks for interoperability for digitalisation, and standardisation of data is recommended so as to allow for data interoperability [
6,
13,
14,
15]. This could be in the form of a data model, data formats, system design and implementation. For the land sector, the challenge of interoperability can only be addressed if the land information systems are based on a common data model [
16]. The LADM provides a good and standards-based model that can be used to improve land administration through the implementation of an integrated land information management system (LIMS) [
17]. It provides a good starting point to develop land information systems that are interoperable across government departments responsible for land administration and also across different administrative units [
16].
This paper is part of a larger research looking at the land administration system in Kenya. The research starts with considering the requirements for the development of a Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) profile for Kenya [
4], then uses those requirements to develop an LADM profile for Kenya [
1]. The next phase covered by this paper is looking into the implementation of the model and specifically focuses on the data exchange and interoperability framework necessary for the implementation and operation of the profile for Kenya, with the aim of contributing to the achievement of the sustainable development goals (SDGs). This goal is to be achieved by answering the following questions: (1) What are the data exchange and interoperability user requirements in Kenyan LAS? (2) Who are the involved LAS data stakeholders? (3) How is interoperability achieved for Kenya? (4) How does the Kenya LAS support contributing to the achievement of the SDGs? (5) Does the Kenyan LADM country profile function in real-world implementation?
This paper is organised into eleven sections, starting with the introduction to the paper in
Section 1.
Section 2 discusses the methodology used in this paper, and sources of data for exchange and interoperability are summarised in
Section 3, while
Section 4 presents the interoperability requirements for Kenya. The interoperability framework in land administration for Kenya is discussed in
Section 5 and the mapping of Kenya’s unique LADM requirements with the SDGs is presented in
Section 6. A technical test for the implementation of the LADM Kenya profile [
1] was conducted, and the results are presented in
Section 8, discussions in
Section 9, and conclusion and recommendation in
Section 10.
4. Requirement for Interoperability in Kenya
Land data exchange and interoperability are a great concern and need in Kenya [
13,
15]. The government of Kenya is striving to develop
Ardhisasa. However, it is important to note that the Kenyan cadastre in its current status may not be readily suitable for a computerised environment. This is because the different cadastral maps cannot be readily integrated to create a homogeneous and seamless digital cadastre. This was observed already in [
24], where the maps are still kept in manual format.
The government of Kenya is currently focused on the promotion of ease of doing business (EODB) and data interoperability, as well as the introduction of e-governance [
13]. This is to enable the achievement of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and Kenya’s Vision 2030 goal, which aims to make Kenya a globally competitive and prosperous country with a high quality of life by 2030 [
25]. Kenya formulated and amended several laws, with land-related ones included (though still in draft state): Land Registration (Electronic Transactions) Regulations, 2020; Survey (Electronic Cadastre Transactions) Regulations, 2020; Stamp Duty (Valuation) Regulations, 2020; Stamp Duty (Amendment) Regulations, 2020; Land (Amendment) Regulations, 2020; Land (Extension and Renewal of Leases) (Amendment) Rules, 2020; The Land (Allocation of Public Land) (Amendments, Regulations), 2020; and Physical and Land Use Planning (Electronic Development Control and Enforcement System) Regulations, 2020, to facilitate the digital services provision.
According to the Ministry of Land, Public Works, Housing and Urban Development’s (MLPWHUD) (2020) report on electronic land transactions, it is important to align e-government initiatives within an elaborate enterprise system architecture/infrastructure with a holistic view of the interoperability of the developed systems (both public and private). This ensures that digitisation and e-conveyancing can align to such strategies since they are bound to inform or affect other government functions [
26]. It is noted that data integration and data interoperability are among the challenges and factors affecting administration of data in the modern world [
13]. Therefore, the ministry recommends that since the architecture of the system forms the main framework on which digitised land transactions run, a robust and scalable enterprise software architecture with a design guided by interoperability, high availability and e-governance strategy awareness is to be enforced [
26].
The automation, interconnectivity, interoperability and creation of a seamless flow and exchange of data amongst all land service providers are crucial [
6]. The inter-linkages will enable systems to speak to each other while interoperability facilitates the ministry and the land sector to operate as one strong and stable entity as opposed to different departments operating independently. This is an important step towards full e-governance for Kenya [
13].
The benefits of the modern and interoperable system are expected to be enormous, right from users’ satisfaction of the services offered to economic development [
27]. It is expected that the modernised land registration system (which brings with it data interoperability) will facilitate a seamless land market and trading system within regions and the world over [
13]. Users usually need transparency, efficiency, speed, equitable access, data quality, interoperability and a cost-effective system [
5], and therefore, for an effective service delivery, a one-stop shop at the comfort of one’s home or office via the Internet is preferred [
13].
6. Mapping the Kenyan LADM Unique Requirements with SDGs
The sustainable development goals (SDGs) were adopted by the United Nations in 2015 as a universal call for action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that, by 2030, all people enjoy peace and prosperity [
31]. These 17 goals, together with their 169 targets, feature many thematic areas, land management included [
6,
32]. This being an urgent call, it is expected that all countries [
15], developed and developing, action them in a global partnership [
33]. As land is an important resource globally, its administration and management are crucial in meeting the sustainable development goals (SDGs), for example, goal 15 and targets 1.4, 2.3, 5.a, 11.1, 15.1 and 15.3 [
4,
10]. This can be summarised as in
Figure 5.
It is therefore critical to investigate the LADM requirements for Kenya and how to map them into the SDGs [
32]. Among the many requirements for modelling in Kenya, four issues stood out as the most critical for land modelling: the gender recordation and rights, community land and rights, pastoralist rights and informal occupation and rights [
1].
According to Okembo et al. (2023), for rights and gender recordation, attributes on gender type, responsibilities related to land and marriage recognition are identified. For community land and rights, recognition of community ownership and attributes on rights, responsibilities and restrictions are included in the model. In terms of pastoralists, it is important to recognise their way of life through nomadism activities. Attributes on migration patterns, migration corridors, migration periods, grazing areas buffer zones and identification of their stakeholders are incorporated in the profile. Finally, for the informal occupation rights on land, they are to be identified and recorded, with attributes on rights, responsibilities and restrictions. Also, some temporary occupation certificates in the form of a letter of allotment are to be issued to them so as to aid in future relocation and resettlement by the government. The introduction of these attributes requires legislation and process development.
Land is at the center of the SDGs and all goals in one way or the other because a country’s economy, stability, and sustainability depend on its land [
34]. A modern and efficient LAS, which contains geospatially precise representations of land parcels and associated RRRs, is essential for countries to achieve the SDGs [
35]. Out of the 17 goals, 5 goals do not speak on land explicitly, being goals 4, 8, 10, 16 and 17 [
32]. However, if better argued, they could still be pinned to land somehow. An attempt to match the SDGs with basic classes of LADM and to categorise them into party-centric, RRR-centric and spatial-centric SDGs is carried out by Unger et al. (2019), as visualised in
Figure 6.
Gender equality and empowering all women and girls is considered as a goal on its own (SDG 5). The effort cuts across the entire 2030 agenda and reflects the growing evidence that gender equality has multiplier effects on sustainable development, allowing for the eradication of poverty (SDG 1) through its target 1.4: “By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new technology and financial services, including microfinance” [
37]. This requires gender recordation and is measured by indicator 1.4.2: “Proportion of total adult population with secure tenure rights to land, (a) with legally recognised documentation, and (b) who perceive their rights to land as secure, by sex and type of tenure” [
33]. Achieving food security (SDG 2) is carried out through its target 2.3: “By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment” [
37]. This is measured by indicator 2.3.2: “Average income of small-scale food producers, by sex and indigenous status” [
33].
Regarding the community land and rights, the model provided a way to recognise the community ownership of land and their management [
1,
4], hence giving the community members rights over their ancestral land [
38]. This is in line with the SDG 2.3, which aims to (by 2030) “double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment” [
33]. The focus here is on the indigenous people who are in various communities with a customary way of life. The goal will be measured by indicator 2.3.2: “Average income of small-scale food producers, by sex and indigenous status” [
33].
The pastoralist rights on land for its grazing, watering and migration are covered also in goal 2.3: “By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment” [
33]. This brings into consideration their way of life and how it supports agricultural production and enhances it for sustaining their livelihoods. Indicator 2.3.1, “Volume of production per labor unit by classes of farming/pastoral/forestry enterprise size” [
33], helps us to measure the achievement of this goal.
Finally, for the informal occupation and rights, SDG 11.1 addresses these by stating that “By 2030, ensure access for all, to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums” [
33]. In order to achieve this, indicator 11.1.1 requires that the proportion of urban population living in slums, informal settlements or inadequate housing [
33] has to be recorded and measured. This means that the parcels’ land use and people living on them must be recorded with sufficient information to be able to come up with an estimation in this regard [
34].
This relationship between the SDGs and Kenya’s four unique issues is summarised in
Table 3.
Figure 7 demonstrates the mapping of the SDGs to land based on the LADM packages. Chehrehbargh et al. (2024) grouped all implications of global initiatives on LASs into three main categories: governance, operational environment and sustainability, and mapped the SDGs as presented in
Figure 7.
7. Colombia and Kenya Testing Review
Kenya undertook a technical test on the STDM based on an FFP approach and Colombia tested their LADM profiles on real-life cases using smartphones, web applications and RTK correction services. In Kenya, Ambani et al. (2017) tested a fit-for-purpose approach to land administration, with a focus on the provision of land titles with inclusiveness for all, where the approach is affordable, fast and ‘good enough’. Walking along the boundaries with the stakeholders and using ortho-photos showing most of the boundaries, they were able to delineate land rights. After identifying in the field, the visual boundaries were then drawn in an analogue manner using a pen or ‘digitally drawn’ using handheld global navigation satellite system (GNSS) devices on top of imagery as shown in
Figure 8.
They also, hand in hand with the boundary delineation, captured the people–land relationships, including formal ownership and informal land use, as well as the possession and occupation of lands, including by women. The field test conducted in Makueni County demonstrated that the field data collection and data handling can be carried out quickly, affordably and reliably. This test was carried out by the Institution of Surveyors of Kenya, the National Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development and the Ministry of Lands, Mining and Physical Planning in Makueni County, in close collaboration with software and hardware providers [
16].
On the other hand, in Colombia, there was a need to modernise land records management from their manual and paper-based processes [
22,
27]. Several workshops were realised in defining a first version of the Colombian LADM profile, together with the specialists of the National Geographic Institute (IGAC), the Property Registry (SNR), the National Land Agency (ANT) and the Land Restitution Unit (URT). Professionals in charge of the National Spatial Data Infrastructure (ICDE in Colombia) and partially those of the E-Government Strategy of the Ministry of ICT were involved too, both interested in promoting the inclusion of the LADM-COL profile in their normative frameworks [
39].
The Colombian profile is based on INTERLIS, which follows a model-driven approach (MDA), with the LADM as the primary standard [
40]. This gave birth to the first version of the conceptual country profile for Colombia (LADM-COL), described in UML [
40]. The LADM-COL model is modularised and structured around a core or minimum model containing the common elements that define the profile. The model is implemented by the institutions that are responsible for each thematic area of data, specialising it according to their missional needs through specific classes, relationships, attributes, sets of values and constrictions [
40].
Then, a pilot for the implementation of the model was planned. To carry this out, a simplified, community-based, standards-compliant methodology was developed with supporting technology in order to register people-to-land relationships in a fast and economically viable way [
41]. This was based on the concept of fit-for-purpose land administration and primarily focuses on rural areas [
22].
The project’s methodology has proven to be applicable and is producing land titles and tenure security for the rural population of Colombia at this moment. The first land titles based on this methodology were handed out in late 2018 [
22]. Kenya can learn from Colombia, especially for the rural cadastre, where community land dominates and women’s rights need to be recorded.
9. Discussions
Data exchange and interoperability within the land administration domain are fundamental for an effective land administration system. By mapping all the data creators and consumers, one is able to tell who generates what data and who needs them, thereby eliminating data creation redundancy and reducing the cost of production while bringing about efficiency. However, many data owners might not be willing to share or provide them as a format or package palatable to the others. This is a great concern that should be addressed before any data interoperability strategy is put in place. Through sensitisation or training in workshops and conferences, together with a comprehensive change management program, this milestone could be attained.
While developing a land administration data interoperability framework for the country and building the foundation with the LADM country profile, there is a need to thoroughly test the framework developed to ensure that it provides the expected outcomes and covers all sectors, areas, functions and workflows intended. This can only be possible if a pilot implementation of the same framework is performed, for example, for one county in Kenya. This could be progressed by expanding to others systematically and in some orders before a national rollout could be carried out. Continuous training, capacity enhancement and attitude need to be strategically planned and executed overtime. Adjustments in the framework can be carried out based on the feedback from the stakeholders involved in each phase or function.
Through the United Nations Agenda 2030, which conceived the SDGs, all the LADM requirements need mapping with the sustainability goals, targets and indicators. While goal five needs to be looked into in totality, more so with regard to its focus on women rights in all resources, other goals have one or a few targets and indicators concerning land-related factors for consideration, monitoring and mapping. Kenya’s four unique issues are coincidentally mapping seamlessly with the various SDGs. Regarding gender considerations and pastoralist rights on land, while some SDGs are direct in prescribing what is required, some indirectly point out the areas.
In order to measure, evaluate and report on any of the goals, dedication in the service and collaboration in the implementation are very necessary. The departments in the government are each to map and report on different goals, indicators and targets. Deliberate efforts need to be put in place that support the whole process, but they need to be centrally managed, harmoniously coordinated and reported in a timely manner. Achieving all goals at once might be a disaster, and agility in the process is recommended with the determination to complete it within the time and budget without compromising quality. With land information as the core of almost all SDGs, it is expected that the attainment of Agenda 2030 is feasible. By being more informed and protected due to the security of tenure, the citizenry of the county in question will have not only possessed land but achieved almost all the sustainability goals.
The field work is expected to produce better results with the involvement of the parties owning rights on land, more so for the adjacent parcels. A test on the process with more stakeholders is required. This holds true for the public inspection and workflow implementation. Time constraints and regulatory requirements made these not possible at this stage; however, they are planned to help to obtain the acceptance of a wider audience, the public and the other stakeholders. It is expected that an actual test with actual intended users will help to validate the technical successes already achieved with this test. On the other hand, the actual integration with an external database, especially through the Integrated Population Registration System (IPRS), is important in attaining an integrated land management system. While the LADM proves that integrating a cadastre and registry is no longer a myth, the addition of other databases will help Kenya to move in the direction taken by the Dutch in their key registers.
There is a need to undertake a public inspection where stakeholders straight from the community are involved to verify the data collected. This includes boundaries and the administration data collected, including the photographs and signatures of parties. The professionals in the land sector, such as surveyors, registrars and land administrators, are to be involved. During this stage, processed results are presented to the community in a public forum for approval. This is where signatures are collected as validation of the results, indicating agreement between parties [
22]. This could not be achieved due to the limited time and the bureaucratic process to obtain the permission to have the exercise performed. It is, however, planned for in the near future.
Integration of the land data with external databases is necessary. This is because the LADM profile for Kenya is meant to integrate with external data sources such as data from the Registrar of Persons database [
1]. This is to facilitate data integrity and to avoid duplication of data entry. Data from external databases such as Kenya’s IPRS [
45] are integrated with the LADM system in order to test the interoperability of different data sources into the model. Kenya’s department of immigration under its National Registration Bureau has, among its Vision 2030 objectives, a population registration and immigration services program. The program’s objective is to establish and operationalise an IPRS for Kenya [
25]. The IPRS is committed to developing an application programming interface (API) that is to support the integration of the IPRS to all the government systems and databases. The IPRS database combines primary registration, such as birth, national ID, passport and alien ID, with secondary registration like tax registration, telecom SIM registration, driving license, national health insurance number, national social security number and GIS positioning of place of business and residence [
46]. While IPRS has been integrated with the mentioned secondary registrations, it gives an indication of the possibility with land registration. It is therefore paramount that the same integration be carried out for the land registry to serve as a reference and also validation of KE_Party details. The entry or collection of party information will not be necessary since it can be drawn from the IPRS and validated by attaching the photos of the national ID card or passport.
Piloting the system and the workflows therein in a staging environment enables testing processes in land within the model to ascertain whether the model supports transactions such as parcel search, transfer of land rights or parcel subdivision. To carry this out, queries using some structured query language (SQL) or over-the-web services [
23] using progressive languages like JSON are necessary. This shall support workflows such as spatial unit (parcel) search to obtain the status of the land, parcel subdivision of amalgamation and the whole parcel registration process producing a title deed as an output.
For ease of implementation, a testing environment that supports the validation of the whole exercise is crucial, starting with implementing the LADM model in a software, configuring the database through parcel fabric, making it available online through an API, collecting and editing data while in the field and transferring them to the cloud. It is recommended that a test for the whole model be completed, managed under the parcel fabric, which would help to model many functions that could be undertaken on a desktop software. Considerations for a web- and mobile-based application giving a one-stop-shop for land matters are essential.
10. Conclusions and Recommendations
Exchanging land data from one department to the other is very crucial. Interoperability of the same is equally essential. For this to be effective, mapping of the data creators or generators is one of the key tasks. Identifying the consumers for the same works well in determining who needs the data produced by who. It is at this point that the need for an interoperability framework becomes necessary. Using the ISO Framework for Enterprise Interoperability standards and the LADM country profile forms a solid foundation for an interoperability framework for a country, more so in land administration. Addressing all the interoperability concerns, removing all the interoperability barriers and determining the best interoperability approach becomes a solution.
Land resources and their information are at the center stage of society sustainability. Forming a core of the SDGs, mapping land resources, their ownership, utilisation, value and protection is very important. This enables the tracking and monitoring of the attainment of the sustainability goals and more so mapping the realities on the ground and the SDG targets and indicators. Promoting the different groups in the society—women, pastoralist, indigenous and informal owners—to have some part to play in areas that help to reduce, if not eliminate, poverty, hunger and diseases, among other global concerns, requires proper land information management: collection, recordation, storage, editing and sharing.
Systems, such as ArcGIS, for desktop, web and field use have proven to offer better solutions to implementing the LADM country profile for Kenya, and this could be true in other countries as well, more so the developing ones. While they support existing data, new data could also be collected, in either online or offline mode, depending on the Internet connectivity in the area in question. However, the choice of system for adoption should be carried out very carefully and consider other factors, especially with regard to the ICT guidelines and standards for that country.
The objectives of this research were met and the research questions were answered. Using the Kenyan profile, its conversion to software, utilisation over the web application and testing of specific attributes in the field make this paper original and a foundation for further findings in this thematic area.